psyc 1st

structuralism

Founder: Wilhelm Wundt
Goal: Break consciousness into basic parts
Method: Introspection

Weakness: Introspection is subjective

Think: “Structure of the mind”

Psychologists study:

1. Behavior (what we do)

2. Mental processes (thoughts, emotions, memories)

3. Brain/body processes (biological bases of behavior)

A science:

• Uses systematic observation

• Tests hypotheses

• Is falsifiable

• Is replicable

• Uses peer review

Functionalism

Founder: William James
Goal: What does the mind DO?
Focus: Survival and adaptation

Behaviorism

Founders: Watson, Skinner
Focus: Observable behavior only
Rejected studying thoughts

Think: “If you can’t see it, don’t study it”

Psychoanalytic Psychology

Founder: Freud
Focus: Unconscious mind, childhood experiences

Think: Iceberg model

Cognitive Revolution

Cognitive Revolution

1960s
Focus: Thinking, memory, information processing

Think: Brain as a computer

🧩 Biopsychosocial Approach

Behavior is influenced by:

• Biological factors (genes, brain)

• Psychological factors (thoughts, emotions)

• Social factors (culture, environment)

Memory trick: Bio + Psycho + Social = Whole Human

tools: Behavior

Naturalistic observation, surveys, experiments

tools: Mental processes

Self‑report, cognitive tasks, reaction time

tools: Brain processes

fMRI, EEG, PET, lesion studies

S/W: Behavioral

Objective, measurable/Doesn’t reveal why internally

S/W: Mental processes

Access to thoughts/Self‑report bias

S/W: Biological

Precise, physical/Expensive, sometimes unclear meaning

Overconfidence Effect

We think we know more than we do.

Confirmation Bias

We look for info that confirms what we already believe.

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it all along.”

Scientific Attitude

1. Curiosity

2. Skepticism

3. Humility

A good scientist asks:

• How do we know?

• What is the evidence?

• Could we be wrong?

Scientific Method (conceptual, not step order)

Helps overcome intuition errors by:

• Requiring testable hypotheses

• Using systematic observation

• Requiring replication

• Using peer review

A good theory:

• Explains data

• Makes predictions

• Is testable

• Is parsimonious (simple is better)

A priori hypothesis

before data collection

Post hoc

after seeing data (Post hoc increases risk of false conclusions.)

Peer Review

Experts evaluate your work before publication.

Why?

• Catches errors

• Improves quality

• Prevents weak research from spreading

Correlational

• Measures variables as they naturally occur

• No manipulation

• Can show covariation

• Cannot show causation

Cross‑sectional —

different people at one time

Longitudinal

same people over time (helps with temporal precedence)

Experimental

• Manipulates independent variable (IV)

• Measures dependent variable (DV)

• Uses random assignment

• Can establish causation

Correlation

A number from -1 to +1.

Direction:
Positive = both increase
Negative = one increases, other decreases

Magnitude:
Closer to 1 = stronger
Closer to 0 = weaker

Three causal interpretations:

If A and B are correlated:

1. A → B

2. B → A

3. C → both (third variable problem)

⭐ Requirements for Causation

• Covariation

• Temporal precedence

• Elimination of confounds

Cross-sectional correlational:

• Covariation only

Longitudinal correlational:

• Covariation + temporal precedence

Experimental

• All three

Independent Variable (IV):

What you manipulate

Dependent Variable (DV):

What you measure

Confound:

A variable that varies with IV and influences DV

(create fake variable results)

Internal validity:

Did we properly control the study?
Can we trust causation?

Random assignment improves internal validity.

External validity:

Can we generalize results?

Random sampling improves external validity.

Dendrites

receive signals

Cell body (soma)

• integrates signals

Axon

sends signals

Terminal buttons

release neurotransmitters

Myelin sheath

• speeds conduction

Terminal buttons

release neurotransmitters

Inter-Neuronal Communication (Between Neurons)

Steps:

1. Action potential reaches terminal

2. Neurotransmitters released

3. Cross synapse

4. Bind to receptors

5. Excite or inhibit next neuron

Inter-Neuronal Communication (Between Neurons) ends by

• Reuptake

• Enzymes breaking down neurotransmitters

• Auto-receptors

Dopamine

reward, movement

Serotonin

mood, sleep

Norepinephrine

arousal, alertness

GABA

inhibition (calming)

Glutamate

excitation (learning, memory)

Acetylcholine

muscle movement, memory

Endorphins

pain relief

Agonist

• increases neurotransmitter activities

Antagonist

• decreases or blocks activity

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain + spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Everything else

Somatic

voluntary movement

Autonomic

involuntary functions

Sympathetic

• fight or flight

Parasympathetic

• rest and digest

Brainstem-Medulla

• Location: Brainstem (lowest part), no lobe

• Function: Heart rate, breathing, survival reflexes

• Exam clue: “Damage leads to trouble breathing” → Medulla

Brainstem-Pons

• Location: Brainstem, above medulla

• Function: Sleep, arousal, facial expressions

• Exam clue: “Regulates sleep cycles” → Pons

Brainstem-Reticular formation

• Location: Runs through brainstem

• Function: Alertness, arousal, attention

• Exam clue: “Coma if damaged” → Reticular formation

Limbic System -Amygdala

• Location: Temporal lobe, limbic system

• Function: Fear, aggression, emotional processing

• Exam clue: “Involved in fear conditioning” → Amygdala

Limbic System -Hippocampus

• Location: Temporal lobe, limbic system

• Function: Forming new memories

• Exam clue: “Cannot form new memories” → Hippocampus

Limbic System -Hypothalamus

• Location: Below thalamus

• Function: Hunger, thirst, sex drive, body temperature, homeostasis

• Exam clue: “Regulates eating behavior” → Hypothalamus

Cerebral Cortex-Frontal lobe

Location: Front of brain
Function: Planning, decision‑making, personality, motor control

Cerebral Cortex - Parietal lobe

Location: Top/back of brain
Function: Touch, spatial awareness

Cerebral Cortex -Temporal lobe

Location: Sides of brain (near ears)
Function: Hearing, memory, language comprehension

Cerebral Cortex -Occipital lobe

Location: Back of brain
Function: Vision

Left hemisphere:

Language

Right hemisphere:

Spatial awareness

MRI

structure

fMRI

blood flow (function)

PET:

Glucose activity

brainstem: Cerebellum

• Location: Back of brainstem (“little brain”)

• Function: Balance, coordination, motor learning

• Exam clue: “Difficulty walking or keeping balance” → Cerebellum

limbic: thalamus

• Location: Center of brain, top of brainstem

• Function: Sensory relay station (except smell)

• Exam clue: “Routes sensory info to cortex” → Thalamus

Prefrontal Cortex

• Function: Planning, judgment, impulse control

• Exam clue: “Poor decision‑making after injury” → Prefrontal cortex

Motor Cortex

• Location: Back of frontal lobe, next to parietal lobe

• Function: Voluntary movement

• Exam clue: “Controls movement of body parts” → Motor cortex

Somatosensory Cortex

• Location: Front of parietal lobe

• Function: Processes touch sensations

• Exam clue: “Feeling pressure or pain” → Somatosensory cortex