The Era of Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1890

Why was the Federal Government weak?

* In 1865 the Federal government was very ==small==


* It was believed that political power should be held to states and the Federal government should not intervene


* In the constitution, there was a ==separation of powers== between the legislative, executive and judiciary. They operated on ==checks and balances== so if any had too much power they could challenge it

What was the impact of Presidential Reconstruction 1865-1867?

* Johnson essentially gave the South the free hand establishing new governments that threatened to reduce African-Americans to a condition similar to slavery. This is because he believed that ==civil rights were a state issue==
* Radical Republicans were angered that the South would return their former Confederate leaders to power because of Johnson’s ==lenient pardoning plan==
* He did not offer pardons to Confederates and people who owned property valued from $20,000. This shows that Johnson mostly r==esented the Southern planter elite==, he was not an abolitionist
* Johnson thought that the states should decide how to treat African Americans and so the South adopted ==Black Codes== that sought to maintain white supremacy
* Freed blacks found the post-war South very similar to the pre-war South
* There was a ==power struggle== between Johnson and Congress as they clashed over civil rights legislation and the renewal of the Freedmen’s bureau
* The failure (because he forced it through too quickly) led to his impeachment, this was a condemnation of his reconstruction plan
* however, he was saved by one vote

What was the signifcance of Radical Reconstruction?

* ==New State Constitutions== were created. Committees that formed to create these constitutions were composed of mainly Republicans, including African Americans. A key component in all constitutions was that voting rights were extended to all adult men
* Radical Republicans believed that the Federal Government should have the role of re building the South
* By 1870 all southern states had been readmitted into the union because the ==Reconstruction Act of 1867== allowed the Radical Republicans to create a political base that facilitated their demands
* During reconstruction, Confederates had no representation in Congress
* Many southern whites could not accept the idea that former slaves could not only vote but hold office
* It was in this era that the ==KKK== was founded
* 7 Southern states did not have reconstruction governments, only Tennessee accepted the ==14th Amendment==
* The ==1875 Civil Rights Act== took 5 years to come into force - this shows the scale of opposition
* A reign of terror was aimed both at blacks seeking to assert their new political rights
* This was a major change in the federal system as It made the national government as an arbiter of citizens' rights

Why did Radical Reconstruction fail?

There was a lack of political focus on the effort because


1. Reactionary forces including the ==KKK== reversed the changes brought by Radical Reconstruction in a ==violent backlash== that restored white supremacy in the South
2. Grant’s presidency was dominated by scandals and corruption. For example, the ==Black Friday== scandal undermined his presidency and led to the ==financial panic of 187l==
3. Federal support for Reconstruction-era state governments in the South ended in the 70s as the financial heightened racial tensions and it reflected badly on the Republican party and it was not a financial priority. In addition, Southern governments blamed their expensive reconstruction policies on these poor economic conditions e.g. ==the Freedmen’s bureau== was targeted for creating a dependency culture + (wheat prices, incomes fell, railroad construction halted)


1. Grant’s presidency was undermined by the corruption of Republicans in the South. This corruption led to Democrats to regain control of the House of Representatives in 1874 and the ==patronage and bribery== undercut support for Reconstruction and were blamed for ==inefficiency==
2. ==Redeemers== wanted to remove the government they saw forcibly imposing their inefficient and corrupt reconstruction plans on them
3. The ==Freedmen’s Bureau== was underfunded and cut short leaving the vast majority of freed people uneducated. There was also no land reform because Johnson ordered nearly all the land in the hands of the government to be returned to its pre-war owners so they had limited advances
4. Reconstructing the South became a ==divisive issue== in national politics, for example, the Republicans were divided between radicals, moderates and conservatives who could not agree on how to rebuild the South and integrate African Americans


1. ==The 1876 compromise== marked the end of reconstruction as a distinct period of American history but in many ways the struggle of reconstruction remained until the 1960s Civil Rights movement
2. Republican governments promised to withdraw federal troops from the South and provide ==federal funding== to improve the South (considering the Civil war damaged their farm implements and livestock) in exchange of accepting Rutherford B. Hayes as president. In effect, this achieved the goal of ==sectional reconciliation== and reconstructing Southern infrastructure but at the expense of African American’s civil liberties
3. Under this compromise, the national government lost ==political authority== over Southern state affairs. This would permit the racial segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans

What were the negative consequences of Reconstruction (when it ended)?

* Much of American society seemed ==unchanged==
* Southern representatives had returned to Congress, and they were similar to those who had served before the war
* One political party, the Democratic Party, ==monopolised== political power
* Reconstruction's failure also carried long-term negative consequences. Racism became more deeply embedded in American society
* The South's economy was almost entirely dependent on a single crop, ==cotton==, and an increasing number of Southerners were reduced to ==tenant== f==arming==
* The overwhelming majority of African Americans would still be living in the South working as ==sharecroppers== on land that they did not own


* Despite ==continuities==, fundamental changes had taken place e.g. ==Chattel slavery== ended, the gang system of labour, enforced by the whip was dead
* Incredibly, about 20 percent of African Americans in the South managed to acquire land by 1880
* Out of Reconstruction came the first state-wide public school systems in the South as the ==first black institutions== of higher learning were founded. it was during Reconstruction that the institutional foundations of the ==modern middle class black community== in the South were laid, including independent black churches and a growing number of black landowners, businessmen, clergymen and teachers

What was the signifcance of the weak presidency?

* This period was dominated by congressional government where presidents tended to be weak and relatively ineffectual. The real power lay with the senate
* Civil service reform became an issue because as the population grew the federal government grew as well
* The reason why they were seen as weak was because they failed to tackle to corruption that dominated politics, business and society
* Corruption started after the ==disputed election of 1877==
* They were seen as the ‘==unforgettable presidents==’
* Hayes disputed election in 1877 was considered a ==fraud== because Tilden had the majority of the popular vote- this diminished Hayes’ political authority
* Garfield’s short-lived presidency showed the divisions that political corruption created. The Republican faction known as ‘==Stalwarts==’ were opposed to reform in relation to ==patronage== so they clashed with Hayes, Garfield and Arthur
* They introduced the ==1890 Mckinley Tarif Act== which essentially tried to make all foreign goods that competed with domestic American business expensive e.g. the average tax was 50%. This was one reason that Populism and Progressivism emerged as farmers suffered
* The weak presidents did attempt to reform the corruption it just was not efective to a large scale e.g. the ==Civil Service Act 188l== established a bipartisan Civil Service Commission authorised to fill federal jobs by examination + Cleveland introduced the ==Interstate commission== to regulate railroads

What corruption was there during the Gilded Age?

* Patronage/spoils system
* Tweed ring who carried out $100-200 millions worth of fraud
* The formation of cartels and trusts

Why was political corruption important?

* This was an era of ==Congressional supremacy==. Both houses of Congress were full of representatives owned by big business
* There was not enough action to get rid of the abuses made by the Gilded age governments

What is the signifcance of Tammany Hall?

* It was a major or controlling faction in the ==Democratic Party/political organisation==
* Its name and the notorious ‘boss’ Tweed was synonymous with corruption through political patronage
* Tammany Hall’s popularity, endurance and source of political capital resulted from its willingness to help the city’s ==poor and immigrant== populations (most notably the Irish) and the working class


* The hundreds receiving Tammany Hall assistance with problems or baskets of food on holidays would show their gratitude at the ==polls==
* Services that Tammany and other urban political machines provided often served as a public welfare system e.g. helping them gain ==naturalised citizenship==
* *Although the primary goal of a political machine is keeping itself in power rather than providing good government, machines have been responsible for restructuring cities by improving facilities and services, helping to assimilate immigrant groups, and encouraging the growth of business and industry*
* ‘Reform’ administrations periodically diminished its power, but for many years it always made a comeback. Then anti-Tammany mayor + FDR were able to weaken the machine’s power ==permanently==. So, its influence waned from 19l0 to 1945 when it engaged in a losing battle with FDR
* The social legislation of the ==New Deal== helped to lessen the hold of the Hall on the poor, who now could obtain government assistance as a right instead of a favour

What were the consequences of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890?

* This was the first piece of federal legislation created to tackle business corruption
* *Lack of specificity in the act's wording led the courts to struggle for years before they could agree on the meanings of "trust", "combinations," and "restraint of trade." In the first 10 years of the law's existence, many more actions were brought against unions than big business*
* *The measure only really as addressed the power and infuence of big business and set precedents for the future*
* It was aimed at oil, sugar and beef industries
* It was actually opposed by the Republicans but because this type of legislation was so popular - they passed it through
* The Supreme court routinely sided with business when any enforcement of the Act was attempted
* The only time an organisation was deemed in restraint of trade was when the court ruled against a labour union
* Theodore Roosevelt used it against ==J.P Morgan’s Northern Securities==

Why were there divisions?

* Southerners desperately wanted to preserve their way of life. They knew that African American ==outnumbered== white voters in the South, disenfranchising them was important to reassert white control
* Capital was tied up to slave ownership, it was a measure of wealth and a sign of status and so they feared for the collapse of the Southern economy without them
* Greed in business and corruption in politics meant that this prosperous economy was only on the surface and was built on the exploitation of workers
* It was a time of discontent & disillusionment

What socio-economic issues were there?

* Most Americans worked 10 hour shifts, 6 days a week, for wages barely enough to survive. Children as young as eight years old worked hours that kept them out of school. There were no retirement benefits and zero compensation for accidents
* The wealth disparity fomented into ==organised labour and the progressive movements== in the later decade
* These individuals were important in bringing change to the life of an American worker → ==the Great railroad strike of 1877== - the first mass strike to involve 110,000 workers from diferent states
* *Strikes were largely unsuccessful as Federal troops were sent to break and disrupt strikes e.g. the Great railroad strike 1877 and the Pullman strike 1894*
* Chinese immigration known as the ‘==yellow peril’== threatened white Americans in the North who saw them as a competition for labour. This is because they worked for half wages. ==Anti-Chinese riots== became predominant from 1877-1882 and this pressured congress to pass the ==Chinese exclusion Act of 1882.== This was discrimination because Chinese immigrants were hard working and not disruptive but instead they were seen as an alien group that could be attacked
* Native Americans were pushed into reservations most significantly after gold prospectors poured into the ==Black Hills in Dakota 1874.== This broke their peace treaties and they were marginalised from mainstream society until FDR
* The ==wounded knee massacre of 1890== could be viewed as the end of the Plains Wars. The violence was rooted in the federal government's reaction to the ==ghost dance movement,== in which a religious ritual centred around dancing became a potent symbol of defiance to white rule. It killed l00-l50 Native Americans, highlighting tensions
* The ==Orange riots in 1870 and 1871== highlighted the growing effects of immigration as it was the beginning of organised crime syndicates (that would become prominent in the 1920s)

What was the signifcance of the American Labour movement/‘Knights of Labour’?

* Their fundamental aim was to create an ==8 hour work day==
* They admitted all wage earners including women and African Americans
* Their philosophy was simple: ==class== was more important than race or gender
* They were the ==largest== labour union in America + they had a solidarity that stretched across the entire nation
* *But after the bomb in* ==*Haymarket Square rally in Chicago 1886*==*, unions were seen as anarchist violent and radical by the public (because it left 11 people dead), so membership began to fall + this in effect* ==*destroyed*== *the Knights of Labour. The Haymarket Riot was viewed a setback /counterproductive for the organised labour movement in America*
* However, it led to the development of the ==American federation of labour==, a turning point of reformation and starting a new era of unionism
* *The American labour movement during the 80s included a* ==*radical*== *faction of socialists, communists and* ==*anarchists*== *who believed the capitalist system should be dismantled because it exploited workers*
* *It signified a period of* ==*nationwide labour upheaval*==*. Chicago was then one of the fastest growing cities in the US*
* *The riot set of a national wave of* ==*xenophobia*== *(because the bomb provoked a frenzied response from the* ==*media*== *who framed the incident as the work of immigrant radicals) as scores of foreign-born radicals and labour organisers were rounded up by the police in Chicago and elsewhere. 8 men were unlawfully convicted then hanged without a fair trial*
* In the aftermath of the Haymarket Square Riot + subsequent trial and executions, public opinion was ==divided==. It either heightened ==anti-labour sentiment== or made some people feel that the men had been convicted unfairly and viewed them as martyrs, inspiring passion

What was the signifcance of the American federation of labour?

* They were formed on different principals than the Knights of Labour. Unlike the Knights of Labour, the AFL was not open to all workers. The AFL only allowed ==skilled== workers to be members
* He made union members seem more respectable because they were more peaceful

What evidence is there that shows the ==position of African Americans== was changing/*stayed the same*?

* Slavery, in practical terms was formally abolished with the end of the Civil War
* 3 constitutional amendments altered the nature of African-American rights
* 7 were elected as congressmen from southern states during the Reconstruction era, 16 altogether and 600 blacks served as legislators on the local level
* By 1900 there were 47,000 African American professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers)
* 40,000 migrated West but *the majority lacked the capital and expertise*
* *Economically African-Americans were disadvantaged because most had skills that were best suited for the plantation.* ==*Sharecropping*== *resembled slavery, many found themselves in an endless cycle of debt*
* *In the* ==*Civil Rights Cases of 1883*==*, the Supreme Court ruled that the* ==*Civil Rights Act of 1875*==*, which had prohibited racial discrimination in hotels, trains, and other public places, was unconstitutional. In an 8-1 decision, the court ruled that the 13th and 14th Amendments to the Constitution did not give Congress the power to regulate the affairs of* ==*private*== *individuals and businesses*
* *This was a huge turning point in state and national government provision of African American rights because, these losses meant that the Federal Government* ==*withdrew*== *from civil rights legislation until 1957*
* *In 1896, the Supreme court ruling of ‘*==*separate but equal*==*’ declared it constitutionally/legally acceptable to create white only and black only facilities. This led to unequal separate lives/ permitted the imposition of racial oppression*
* *The* ==*lynching*== *that occurred meant that thousands of African Americans in the South were murdered by mobs because they were accused of crimes but they did not have the opportunity to face their accusations in a cou*rt

What is the signifcance of the Kansas Exodus 1879?

* The first instance of voluntary mass migration of 40,000 African Americans across the Mississippi river to Kansas 
* They bought more than 20,000 acres of land in Kansas  The reason why they migrated highlighted the lack of change to the civil rights they faced in the South in terms of voting
* Kansas was seen as a progressive state and more tolerant than others
* *Although Kansas had once been called the "greatest, grandest and freest of all states," some African Americans found their experiences in Kansas to be discouraging. Although the* ==*Kansas Constitution*== *welcomed people of all ethnic and racial backgrounds, many whites who had previously settled there were* ==*unwelcoming*==*. Bad economic times also were difficult for African Americans. Some blacks left the state for the unsettled territory that would become Oklahoma, and some returned to the South* However, a great many stayed and called Kansas home
* While the rumours regarding racial attitudes proved exaggerations, the black farmers who took advantage of the ==Homestead Act== found the West more hospitable than the South
* While black access to land never equalled that of whites, the Act gave thousands of ex- slaves the opportunity to own their own land, something that was unattainable in the South

Describe the lifestyle of a sharecropper/slavery by another name

* After the Civil War, ==former slaves sought jobs, and planters sought labourers==. The absence of cash or an independent credit system led to the creation of sharecropping  It was a farm tenancy system in which families worked a farm or section of land in return for a ==share of the crop== rather than wages
* It was in essence, it was a ==cycle of poverty== because by the time sharecroppers gave their share and paid their debts they rarely had any money left and were sometimes ==still in heavily indebted== to the agricultural equipment (seeds, fertiliser) they had to purchase on credit + high-interest rates. A sharecropper was frequently tied to one plantation so they had little choice but to stay until their debts were repaid
* African Americans in the ==deep South== were uneducated and illiterate so they could not do anything if their landowners cheated them in terms of repayments
* The white land-owners arranged things so that most sharecroppers could not make enough money sharecropping to buy their food and clothes. They ended up having to ==borrow== money from the land-owners, hence they were always in debt
* The principal crop continued to be cotton. And the planters under the sharecropping system continued to a large degree to control the lives of the blacks working their land


* *They were better of than when they were enslaved. Nobody could split their family up or beat them, but sharecroppers were still poor, and it was hard for them to save money to buy their own land*
* After World War II, migration to the North, farm mechanisation, education, other employment options, and the Civil Rights movement brought the system to an end

How did the position of Women change?

The ==American Women’s Suffrage Association== and the ==National Women Suffrage Association== was created. One pressed for state changes and the other pressed for constitutional amendments and so a split occurred in 1869. This weakened the suffrage movement for the next two decades

Describe America’s abundance in natural resources

* It has a large land mass with thousands of acres of ==fertile land==, thanks to the Great Plains
* It was bordered by two large ==coastlines== that provided food and later ports for commerce
* it was easily accessible via ocean or land, making it attractive to immigrants and creating a diverse population
* America has the world's largest reserves of ==coal==, 27% of the total. This abundant source of energy helped fuel growth during the Industrial Revolution. It was used to drive steamships and steam-powered railroads + fuel the iron blast furnaces that made steel
* The rapid growth of US economy can be explained by focusing on the ==iron and steel== industry. This industry demonstrates the link between the exploitation of natural resources and the expansion of manufactured exports: the initial surge of iron and steel exports during the 1890s can be traced to the opening of the ==Mesabi iron ore range in Minnesota 1892==, which cut the domestic price of iron ore in half during that decade
* US ==export boom== from 1895 = American commercial invasion in which the volume of manufactured exports rose by 90%
* The ==Texas Oil boom from 1901== marked a significant economic development where it began the world’s ‘==Oil Age==’ because of a discovery of a petroleum refinery. It turned a place from rural town to an industrialised city

What was the signifcance of railroads?

* They were the backbone of the American economy
* After the Civil war, railroad construction was much safer with the invention of brakes
* They linked the Pacific and Atlantic oceans
* For the first time Americans could travel from coast to coast quicker


* The ==transcontinental railroad== allowed settlement of the West, opened new markets for eastern manufacturers, and brought relief to overcrowded eastern cities. For example, in 1860 there were only 760,000 inhabitants of the West but by 1890 there were 6 million
* It was the ==2nd biggest industry== after agriculture, employing 1 out of every 25 American workers


* They could be used to control the whole of continental USA, completing the ==Manifest Destiny==
* Population and migration increased in the West with frontier settlement as well as the desire for more wealth, railroads helped to ==link== both the eastern/ central part of the US with the newly discovered Western part
* Prospectors moved out West with the desire to generate new ==revenue streams==, while settlers migrated in the hunt for new land
* Spurned by Congressional allocation of funds, corporations built the railroad in exchange for ==land rights== in the new West. As more railroads were built, industries cropped up in the West and used the railroads to link industries e.g. ==cattle== were driven from ranches with railroads so they could be shipped back to the East + ==mining== was an enormous boost to the economy and they needed the railroads to transport their goods
* Farming was also afected by the growth of railroads; in particular, single-crop "==bonanza farms==" such as the ones in California that grew wheat were able to transport large amounts of their crops and fours for sale across the country
* *They were a representation of unfair business practise, risk taking and corruption*
* *Competition led to the ‘*==*gentleman’s agreement*==*’ which created minimum freight prices and so prevented a downward trend in prices*
* *The industry's growth was accompanied by bitter labour disputes*

What was the signifcance of the Great railroad strike of 1877?

* Northern railroads were still suffering from the ==Financial Panic of 1873==, began cutting salaries and wages. The cutbacks prompted strikes and violence with lasting consequences
* A single incident of strike in West Virginia (after workers of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad were informed that their pay would be cut 10 %) quickly turned into a national movement
* It marked the first time the federal government called out troops to quell a labour dispute
* It was estimated that about 100 strikers had been killed
* It was a major setback because after two weeks workers returned to their jobs. However, the awareness it brought to American labour problems resonated for years

What was the signifcance of oil?

* After the first discovery in 1859, ==Rockefeller== invested all his savings into what he saw as the future. He was the world’s first billionaire by 1913
* He made many sales by using them to make ==candles, petroleum jelly==
* The ==Standard Oil Company== (1870-1911) was the largest business and trust on American land
* Eliminating competition was a way of reducing costs and providing cheaper products

What is the signifcance of steel?

* Steel provided a plentiful, durable substance that could sustain tremendous weight
* ==Carnegie== saw the great demand for it driven by railroads (but then this industry declined), skyscraper, naval feet, factory machinery
* Carnegie brought all the processes of steel manufacturing together = smelting + refining + rolling
* Carnegie rarely tried to buy out his competitors, he preferred to concentrate on producing steel at low costs. He monopolised the steel market through vertical integration which meant controlling all processes from the initial extraction of the iron ore
* On one extreme, he donated lots of money but on the other side, he was criticised for making his fortune through exploiting his workforce
* His ideas and ideology were philanthropy

What is the significance of Electricity?

* It was the main reason why America progressed at such a fast pace than ever before
* ==The Edison Electric Company== created efficient, inexpensive, incandescent light bulb, the electrical system to power it + generators, electrical wires and switches
* Electricity spread from large cities to small cities and eventually out into rural areas by the 1920s
* He invented the ==electric lightbulb in 1879==
* The most noteworthy efect of high-quality, afordable lighting was the widespread practice of running factories ==24 hours== a day which made them much more productive
* As the electrical grid became more reliable, electric motors gradually began to replace steam engines as the source of power in manufacturing
* It played an integral role in the development that took place. First and foremost, the production of ==domestic electric appliances== such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, fans, iron boxes and dish washers among others eased work load and enabled tasks be completed faster and more efficiently. Through the “==Electrify Your Home Campaign==” in the 1920s, majority of households were convinced to modernise
* It impacted the ==entertainment== scene. Televisions and radios that broadcasted various programs were manufactured. Due to the eased workload by household appliances, people found time to engage in entertainment. Hollywood is said to have blossomed during this period with people going to movie theatres more than ever
* Through the construction of an ==electric car assembly== line pioneered by Henry Ford in 1913, mass production of automobiles was realised. With this, the cost of production substantially reduced causing the final cost of the automobiles themselves to drop. As a result, more people bought cars
* In conclusion, electricity had a significant impact on the economy as a whole by transforming both domestic and commercial spheres of the society

__The USA’s abundance of natural resources was an integral reason for economic growth because it provided entrepreneurs with opportunity__

What changes were there to the economy/ urbanisation?

* The modern American city was truly born in the ==Gilded Age==. The bright lights, tall buildings, material goods, and fast pace of urban life emerged as America moved into the 20th century
* The telephone was invented in 1876 electricity in 1879. The ==Linotype machine, invented in 1883==, allowed for much faster printing. The implications for business were staggering
* The farm could not compete. Most of these new conveniences were confined to the cities because of the difficulties of sending electric power to isolated areas
* *The majority of the people in the cities lived in overcrowded tenements with disease and a lack of any hygiene. For example, Cholera and Yellow fever epidemics swept through the slums on a regular basis and the public sewage and trash collection was not efficient yet*

What was the signifcance of the Robber Barons?

* Monopolists who crushed competitors, rigged markets, and corrupted government
* The creation of ==trusts and cartels== grew out of what was seen as the adverse effects of ==unrestricted competition== leading to falling prices and profits
* These wealthy industries enabled the American economy to expand efficiently during the Gilded age because the domination of these ‘==robber barons==’ merged into vast combined enterprises that linked manufacturing railroads and shipping (vertical integration). The creation of ==monopolies== squeezed out inefficient competition and enabled them to control prices. They were thus pivotal for economic development
* Disgust with the power of corporate America and individuals like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J. P. Morgan led to the growth of the Progressive movement and to reform eforts, including antitrust legislation, and investigative journalism, or muckraking

What were the developments in agriculture \[for the Great plain’s farmers\]?

* Agriculture was the biggest loser during the Gilded Age. Large farmers began to dominate at the expense of small farmers
* There were tremendous economic difficulties associated with Western farm life. For example, ==overproduction==. Because the amount of land under cultivation increased dramatically and new farming techniques produced greater and greater yields, the food market became so fooded with goods that ==prices fell sharply e.g. wheat==
* New machinery (threshers, binders and reapers)
* and fertiliser was needed to farm on a large scale. Often farmers borrowed money to purchase this equipment, leaving themselves hopelessly in debt. This was worsened because of the ==Mckinley Tarrif Act 1890==
* Farmers were often charged higher rates to ship their goods a short distance
* Farmers lacked political power but these conditions of socio-economic unrest would not last

What was the signifcance of the Homestead Act 1862?

* A significant legislative action that promoted the settlement and development of the American West. It was also notable for the opportunity it gave ==African Americans== to own land (since the only personal requirement was that the homesteader be either the head of a family or 21 years of age)
* Hundreds of thousands of people moved to the ==Great Plains== in an efort to take advantage of the free land
* The potential for free land attracted hundreds of thousands of settlers to move to ==Kansas, Nebraska, the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)==
* The law did not provide the new beginning for urban slum dwellers that some had hoped; few such families had the resources to start farming, even on free land
* The grants did give ==new opportunities to many impoverished farmers== from the East and Midwest, but much of the land granted under the Homestead Act fell quickly into the hands of speculators
* Also, over time, the growing ==mechanisation== of American agriculture led to the replacement of individual homesteads with a smaller number of much ==larger farms==

What was the signifcance of the Oklahoma land rush 1889?

* It was initially considered unsuitable for ==white colonisation==; Indian Territory was thought to be an ideal place to relocate Native Americans but they were removed from their traditional lands to make way for white settlement. This is because they were considered the best unoccupied public land in the nation
* It was an example of ==rapid Westward expansion== as by the end of the day cities were established with 10,000 people and within one month, ==Oklahoma City== had 5 banks and 6 newspapers. The impact of the land rush was thus ==immediate==, transforming the land almost overnight
* *However, many of the "*==*Boomers*==*" - those who had waited for the cannon's boom before rushing into the land claim - found that many the choice plots had already been claimed by "*==*Sooners*==*" who had snuck into the land claim area before the race began*

What was the signifcance of the Gilded Age?

* It lasted from the end of the civil war in 1865 to 1898
* The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark Twain in reference to the appearance of economic prosperity and progress in America as a mere "cheap coating" that ==covered== ==some of the darker realities== of oppression and violence that were commonplace but hidden beneath the surface of American culture/ nice on the surface but diferent on the inside/ superficial
* E.g. ==second Industrial Revolution==. This boom in manufacturing, invention, communication and connection (via the steel revolution, the railway system, the light bulb, and the telephone) lined the pockets of the ==US's industry tycoons==
* But ==hid the cruelties== of unfair/unhealthy working conditions and compensation in factories, cramped immigrant tenements, sharecropping and racial disenfranchisement in the south, and the horrendous seizure and redistribution of Indian tribal lands to greedy white settlers

Explain the financial panic of 1873-1878

* It was due to rampant speculation in ==railroads==. The stock market dropped sharply and caused numerous businesses to fail.
* The depression caused approximately ==3mn== Americans to lose their jobs
* The ==collapse== in food prices impacted America's farm economy, causing great poverty in rural America

What is the significance of closing the frontier?

* The Turner thesis 1893 said that American democracy were shaped by values and attitudes associated with the moving frontier- now that it was closed, the US could no longer claim to be an unfinished nation
* It also stated that Laissez faire, rugged individualism, self-help and free enterprise drove the frontier Westward. It was a distinct New world (American) phenomenon
* *This ignored the importance of other factors e.g. railroads + most migration was to the North*
* *It was also racist/nativist/misogynistic, claiming that white man drove this forward*
* Before 1890, the West was an emerging area of homestead farmers, miners, and cattle ranchers
* When the ==Native Americans were placed on reservations==, one of the last barriers to western expansion was lifted e.g. By 1900, their population had fallen from almost 250,000 to only slightly more than 100,000
* The completion of the trans-continental railroad became the catalyst for new tensions between white settlers and Native Americans, because they could reach the West more quickly and cheaply
* ==Boom towns== fowered across the American West. They produced not only gold and silver, but zinc, copper, and lead, all essential for the eastern Industrial Revolution
* This attracted migrants who participated in Western mining
* Some towns prospered *but the majority became ghost towns because the mines became exhausted*
* *It also ignored the fact that life on the frontier had been harsh that many settlers returned East*
* The west became satired as the ‘==Wild West==’ and a place to achieve the American dream
* The closing of the frontier led to the issue of the opening of a new one, coinciding with the growth of imperialism. External frontiers did exist undeveloped nations

Why did America want to expand West?

* Many pioneers from the East associated westward migration, land ownership and farming with ==freedom==
* The western frontier ofered the possibility of independence and upward mobility for all  Westward migration = essential part of the Republican project
* The destruction of the bufalo herds demonstrates the blind greed and selfishness with which Americans into the West

Explain the Monroe Doctrine

* It was created in 182l as a response to European interests in the American continent (South America)
* The ‘==New world==’ belonged to them and if the Europeans tried to colonise the Americas, they would perceive this as a threat and take action, in essence it declared the entire Americas the US’ sphere of influence
* It was a warning to Europe
* It was not applied consistently

What evidence is there to suggest that the US was isolationist?

* (a foreign policy by which the USA detached itself from foreign afairs, no intervention or involvement in other government’s internal afairs and wars)
* In 1865 there was a direct ==threat to the Monroe Doctrine== as the French Napoleon III took advantage of the Civil War to establish a puppet emperor in ==Mexico==. With the US no longer involved in the Civil War they sent out 50,000 troops to the Mexican border in 1866 and Napoleon finally pulled out in 1867
* ==Alaska purchase 1867== because William Seward was a firm believer in the Manifest Destiny
* Some favoured acquiring the ==Dominican Republic== as it had ofered itself for colonialisation in 1869. Grant was a supporter but most of his cabinet and Congress rejected it e.g. his secretary of state Hamilton Fish

Why was America isolationist?

* During this period, the US was preoccupied with various ==domestic affairs== such as reconstruction, Indian affairs, Westward expansion so considering they experienced a Civil war recently they wanted to be on friendly terms with all nations
* Isolationists held the view that America's perspective on the world was ==different== from that of ==European== societies and that America could advance the cause of freedom and ==democracy== by means other than ==colonialism==
* They felt unique because they had been set up as a republic, born out of a rebellion against imperialism which it rejected
* The US is populated by people escaping persecution, seeking to make a new start
* *American isolationism did not mean disengagement from the world stage. Isolationists were not* ==*averse*== *to the idea that the US should be a world player and even further its territorial, ideological and economic interests, particularly in the Western Hemisphere*

What evidence is there to suggest that the US was expansionist?

* They had too many interests to be strictly isolationist
* They pursued a policy of isolationism however, this only meant staying out of ‘==entangling alliances==’/military alliances that might draw the country into war. American isolationism was not a policy of economic and cultural isolationism, they actively sought markets and trading partners abroad
* The ==Alaska purchase in 1867== represented Western expansion and the Manifest destiny. It was mainly to remove the presence of Russia on the American continent + the senate saw its economic potential as it alaskan ports could be developed to provide a gateway to Asia. William Seward was initially criticised for purchasing a ‘wasteland’ and a ‘polar bear garden’
* In the ==Alabama claims==, the US wanted Britain to cede Canada or pay $2 billion, however Canada became a self-governing dominion since 1867 and Britain only controlled its foreign afairs. This dispute was settled in 1872
* In 1867 they acquired in uninhabited ==Midway Island==
* In 1867 they singed the ==Burlingame-Seward trade treaty with China== which allowed free movement of people (for railroads) and products. This also established friendly relations and was a major advancement in American commercial interest
* In 1873 Hamilton fish negotiated a ==trade treaty with Hawai==i, this opened close links and paved the way for annexation in 1896
* A similar trade treaty was created with ==Samoa== in 1878

What was the signifcance of the Alaska boundary dispute?

* It was regarding the legal boundaries of Alaska
* The dispute heated up during the 1880s after gold was discovered in the area of ==Klondike== as it brought attention to that area
* Britain was more concerned about maintaining positive relations with the US (hence the US claim winning the vote) than in conciliating the people of western Canada. Although, the Canadians thought that Britain would side with them
* Settlement of the Alaskan boundary dispute in 190l was a major step forward in ==Anglo- American cooperation==

How was the USA by 1890?

* Not a complete economic and military power but the ideas were prominent
* There was a vision for the US to create a naval power