Apush period 8

Everything

Postwar economy

* Fear that the economy would collapse after WW2
* Would there be enough jobs for GIs from the war in the pacific?
* Tremendous **economic boom** from 1950 onward
* After ww2, US is richest nation in the world
* **Middle class** grows over 50%
* **Defense spending** is big reason for economic prosperity
* Much of growth takes place in **Sunbelt**

GI Bill of Rights 1944

* Aka service men’s readjustment act
* Helped veterans by providing tuition assistance for school + low interest govt loans to buy homes, start business, etc
* Allotted money to WW2 veterans
* Raised education levels nationwide + stimulated the construction industry

Truman

* 1st president in 20th century to use powers of the Presiency to challenge **racial discrimination**

\-Committee on Civil Rights (1946)-c.r issues are investigated

\-**desegregated** the armed forces→ angers south democrats and they try to block his other civil rights efforts
* Elected in 1948, but 1st became president in 45’ after FDR passes

Taft Hartley Act

* Passed over Truman’s veto
* Made **closed shops** illegal
* Closed shops means to only hire union employees
* Passed bc republicans wanted to decrease the growing power of unions
* Big labor defeat

Fair deal

* Wanted to extend programs and progress of the New Deal + advocate for many liberal reforms
* Ex: extending social security benefits, increase min wage, national health insurance, public housing etc
* Conservatives in congress blocked most of his fair deal proposals (Except min wage goes from 40c to 75 c and hour

US in Postwar World

* Unlike post ww1 period, US will play a significant role in post WW2
* After WW2, **US is NO LONGER ISOLATIONIST**
* US joins the UN in 1945
* International finance agreement est at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944-sought to est a stable global economy
* **IMF** and **World Bank** was intended to help rebuild war-torn world + promote international trade

\-Soviets viewed it as a tool to promote capitalism and rejected membership

Cold War (1945-1991)

An ideological, political, and military struggle between the US and the Soviets

* Both want to prove their ideology was superior/US wants to prevent communism from spreading

Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)

FDR, Churchill, and Stalin meet to discuss to discuss postwar plans. They decide to occupy germany + ensure Romania, Poland, and Bulguria would have a represntive govt and free elections→ Stalin breaks it later

Spheres of influence

* Russia creates this to build alliances w neighboring countries in order to guarantee financial security
* It contradicts Wilson’s plan for an open world where all countries were democratized in order to promote world peace

Bretton woods conference 1944

Allies met to create **IMF (**international money fund) to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates + the World Bank to ptomote economic growth in underdeveloped areas

UN 1945

* Had representatives from 50 countries→ big 5 were US, China, France, USSR, UK(rights to veto)
* It provided international aid through UNESCO, FAO(Food +agricultural org, and WHO (World Health org)
* Made to promote international cooperation and prevent future world wars

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Extra Info: Bernard Baurch wanted to create UN agency that could regulate atomic energy inetrantionally, but neithr US or Soviets wanted to give up certain nuclear weapons→ shows how tensions remain high + both want to prepare for potential conflict

Nuremberg trials 1945-46

* Former Nazi leaders put on trial + punished for their crimes

Extra Info: As much as the Allies wanted to punish Germany(either by destroying German factories to prevent them from becoming too strong or having them pay reparations to rebuild other countries) __they realized that a flourishing Germany was necessary for the recovery of Europe as a whole__

Intro to cold war

* After WW2, germany is split into **4 military occupation** zones btwn US, France, Uk, + USSR

Soviets tighten communist grip on the Eastern area it controls

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US + UK merged their zones and championed the idea of unification of all of Germany. They refused to allow reparations from their zones as they viewed the economic recovery of Germany as important to the stability of Central Europe. Russia feared a resurgence of German military power and responded by intensifying the communization of its zone, including the jointly occupied city of Berlin.

Satellite state

West Germany became an independent country but East Germany became a soviet ( blank)→ meaning it was shut off from the Western world

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Example of the **iron curtain**

Iron curtain

USSR’s attempt to shield itself with satellite states w communism, separating itself from the rest of capitalist Europe

* Refers to the satellite states of Europe

Berlin Airlift 1948-49

Context: Stalin tries to cut off Allied access to Berlin by blocking RRs + highways, hoping to starve them (creates a blockade)

1948 Stalin **blockades Berlin**

* Truman send supplies and chocolates to Berlin for a year, hoping to show that US wont back down and appease Stalin, eventually blockade lifts but Germany remains divided
* 1949 he end the blockade

Containment doctrine 1947

* Written by diplomate George Kennan, stating that Russia was dangerously expansionist→ the only way to defeat communism was to treat it like a virus: quarantine(contain) the communist ideology to prevent other countries from falling to it.
* Dictates Truman’s policies going forward

Truman Doctrine 1947

* US provides military+ economic aid (400mil) to prevent Greece and Turkey from falling to communism→ Truman agrees to give aid to any countries facing communist pressure
* Critics said he was overreacting, possibly allowing foreign leaders to take advantage of his kindness by guaranteeing them unlimited resources to defeat ant perceived threats
* Supporters thought it was necessary to ensure global unity and defeat communism

Marshall plan 1947

* Gave billions of dollars in aid to 16 European countries


* They rapidly rebuild, creating flourishing economies, while the Communists lose most of their power in those areas→ success for US
* Aid to specifically **western europe**

NSA(National Security Act) 1947

COLD WAR CAUSES US TO TAKE MEASURES TO INCREASE THEIR SECURITY

Created the Department of Defense to have a more unified military body with efficient communication

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Also created the NSC(national security council) to advise the President abut the best course of action in security matters



created the CIA to gather intel on foregn affairs + run covert foreign operations in order to push the US’s agenda on an international scale ex: used to overhrwo Iran’s leader and install a new one chosen by the US

NATO(North atlantic treaty organization) 1949

Capitalist nations like UK, France, Belgium, Netherlands, US etc) make a pact to prepare for a potential enemy attack, saying that if 1 country gets attacked, the others would come to its aid **{an attack on 1 nation is an attack on all}**

* US joins 1st peaceful defensive military alliance



Marked a departure the US’s diplomatic convention of isolationism (avoiding foreign alliances) and boosted European unification. Also important step in militarization leading up to the Cold War.

Cold war in Asia

General macArthur put in charge of rebuilding(democratizing) Japan

* 1946 they adopt a MacArthur dictated constitution, created a western style dem. Govt→ Japan’s economy thrives

1949 Chinese Nationalist govt is forced to flee to Taiwan after the communist, led by Mao Zedong, take over the country→

* loss for the US+allies bc more of the world’s population is becoming communist

H bomb

Response to Russia exploding their 1st atomic bomb

* Truman order the development of this. And it first explodes in 1952
* Russia responds with theirs in 1953, starting a dangerously competitive cycle in the nuclear arms race

38th parallel line

Korea (Japanese colony) splits along this line

* Soviets control the North and US controls the South
* Leads to creation of NSC-68

NSC-68 (1950)

Document that recommended the US increase their defense spending and be stricter w their containment policy towards Russia

* Called for a massive military building

Korean war

* Following the invasion of south Korea (by the north), in 1950 Truman ordered a buildup of forces that was greater than necessary.

In order to contain communism, Truman convinces the UN to declare north Korea an aggressor and sends general MacArthur to south Korea. Other UN countries also sen troops, the war has official begun.

\-Korea remains divided but the containment worked, bc Truman is able to keep south Korea from communist

MacArthur advocates an aggressive approach (like nuclear weapons) + critices Truman’s ;limited war’ strategy→ truman fires him

Domestic fears

People ggrew more afraid that communist spies had infultrated US society→ leads to creation of HUAC, Rosenberg trial, Loyalty review board

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Rosenberg: Julius + Ethel convicted of espionage in 1951 and executed in 1953

HUAC(House Un-American Activities Committee) 1938

* searched for communist influence/spies in American life and ‘subversion’ (opposition to gov)
* 1948, Whittaker Chambers, accuses former new dealer Alger Hiss of being a communist and starts a communist spy hunt→ sentenced to 5 years in prison bc convicted of perjury

\-becomes televised drama

Loyalty Review board 1947

* investigated for possible communist spies in the fed govt
* Out of 3 mil employees, 3,000 were dismissed or resigned w no formal indictment→ the board probably convicted thousands of innocent people create a guise of security + reduce public panic

Dennis vs US 1951

* 1949, 11 communists are sent to prison for violating the **Smith Act** (peacetime + sedition law) trying to overthrow the govt
* Upheld constitutionality of the Smith Act made it a criminal offense to advocate the violent overthrow of the government or to organize or be a member of any group or society devoted to such advocacy.

Red Scare

* As the Soviets emerged as the greatest threat to the US after ww2, the gov searched for suspected communist →led to realization that hunt for communism turning into witch hunt
* Led the nation to live up to its own democratic ideals, helped cause various civil rights advocates: if they didn’t recognize their demands they were hypocrites also leads to executive order 9981

McCarran Internal Security Bill 1950

Truman vetoes this bill that would Allowed him to arrest/detain suspicious ppl during an ‘internal security emergency’

congress still passes it over his veto

McCarthyism

* Practice of spreading treasonous accusations without evidence
* Named after Senator McCarthy who claimed Sec of state. Acheson, had intentionally hired 200 communist party members(had no proof of this)
* Essentially ending careers of many prominent ppl(but most of the public approved of these tactics bc gives them sense of security)

Army-McCarthy hearings 1954

Context: ppl agreed he went too far when he accused US army of being full of communist spies→ fought allegations

* Ultimately exposed McCarthy’s extremism and

Executive order 9981(1948)

* Desegregated armed forces and abolished discrimination on the grounds of race, religion, etc

Operation Dixie 1948

* Laborers tried to organize in historically anti union areas like West and South
* Failed bc Southerners were reluctant to work with blacks

Employment Act 1946

* Declared govt economic policy should aim to promote max employment production, + keep inflation low.
* Established a 3 person board to advise the president on economic policy

Point 4 program

* In his inaugural address, suggested the US send aid money to underdeveloped countries to help them grow→ hoped to stop countries from ever becoming communist in the 1st place and helped many countries

Dwight Eisenhower

* Moderate Republican, elected in 1952
* Largest public works project: Interstate Highway Act 1956
* Bipartisan
* Re elected in 1956
* Ends Korean war in 53’ with an armistice also Stalin dies in 53
* Uses the CIA to undermine communist governments and install pr US regimes in places like Iran and Guatemala→ 1953 CIA helps overthrow the elected gov (Operation Ajax) when it attempts to nationalize foreign oil companies

Interstate Highway Act 1956

* Provided for the building of 42,000 miles of interstate highways
* Justified as needed for national defense(if soviets strike nuke attack ppl can evacuate easier)
* Impact:Created jobs, growth of suburbs, white flight, more **homogenous** culture

1950s society+ economics

* Rise of middle class
* Economic prosperity
* 1st time in history where white collar workers outnumber blue collard workers
* Creation of credit cards, fast foods, + other forms of recreation led to emerging lifestyle of leisure and affluence
* Move to suburbs,standardized houses in Levittown(blacks not allowed to buy houses there), + baby boom
* Credit cards introduced + allow for increase in consumerism
* TV becomes common household item contributes to homogeneity of US culture(ppl are all watching the same thing)

TV

* Led to question regarding the nation’s morals, politics, etc.
* Glamorized suburban life, woman maker like ‘Leave it to Beaver”
* Cult of domesticity celebrated/ re-enforced

tension in 1950s culture

* Betty Friedan writes the “Feminine Mystique” which questioned status and treatment of women in society, challenged the cult of domesticity
* Marilyn Monroe + playboy bunnies also challenges the cult
* Rock n roll music created by blacks but singers like Elvis blew up

Civil rights movement

Since reconstruction ended the issues of civil rights were slow to progress

* Jim crow laws throughout the South
* Desgeragetd military

Brown v Board of Education 1954

Ruled “separate facilities are inherently unequal” and segregating public schools was unequal

* Plessy v Ferguson unconstitutional
* Schools must be desegregated w deliberate speed

As schools were forced to integrate, the Deep South refused to do so bc of their “states rights”→ even 10 yrs after the Sc decision

Southern manifesto

Signed by 101 congress members

* Condemned the SC decision of Brown v Board of education

Little rock 9

* Governor Orval Faubus used state’s national guard to prevent them from going to Little Rock HS
* Southern defiance pressured Eisenhower to send fed troops to escort them to school

Feminine mystique 1963

Betty friedan wrote about how most suburban housewives were unhappy, helped to launch the postindustrial feminist movement

Sunbelt

* area of 15 states in the South from VA to CA, grew 2x as fast as the northeast


* Had better climate, lower taxes, and received more fed money than the north
* Many whites moved to the suburbs w organizations like FHA(Fed Housing Association) making it more affordable to buy a suburb house
* White flight left blacks + other minorities in poverty stricken inner cities, especially since FHA didnt give to blacks

Rock n roll

* Fused black and white musical traditions (black rhythms + white country styles)
* Critics complained abt this new lifestyle
* Older ppl thought it was too vulgar

Sweatt v Painter 1950

* SC ruled that segregated professional schools failed to provide an equal quality of education

Montgomery Bus boycott

* Began when rosa sat in the whites only section in the bus + her immediate arrest led to→
* Year long boycott of the Montgomery busing→ South realized that blacks will no longer struggle in silence or accept the indignity of segregation
* MLK rose to power by leading his peacful protests inspired by Gandhi

Note: Eisenhower+ congress largely ignored racial issues so it fell upon the SC to advancing the civil rights movement

Civil Rights Act 1957

* Congress passed this after Little rock 9 incident: Created the Civil rights commission, which would investigate civil rights violations + could authorize fed injunctions to protect voting rights
* Eisenhower reassured republicans that it was a mild legislation; shows he’s afraid to take strong stance to counter his party’s beliefs

SCLC(Southern Christian Leadership Conference)

MLK forms this to mobilize black churches in the fight for civil rights , as they were the biggest institutions that were allowed in Southern society

Operation Wetback 1954

Eisenhower deported a million of undocumented immigrants after the Mexican govt became concerned that undocumented immigration would undermine the bracero program

Policy of boldness 1954

Context: republicans argued that the containment policy wouldn’t effectively deal w communism bc it just stopped it from spreading and didnt roll back any gains it made

* A fleet of super-bombers w nuclear bombs would be sent to threaten communist nations the; US would rely on its superior nuclear arsenal to deter communist aggression

Suez crisis 1956

Began when Egyptian president gamal abdel Nasser asked other countries for funds to build a dam on part of the Nile River→ US + UK offer to help but withdraw when Egypt appeared to help communists→ Nasser nationalized the Suez canal, which was owned by Brit+ French stockholders. This jeopardized western supply of oil

NASA(national aeronautics + space administration)

response to Russia’s sputnik: 1st man made object to orbit earth

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* Eisenhower creates this to get ahead of the space race
* Investing billions of dollars in missile development(US manages to launch some tiny satellites)

Kitchen debate 1959

Nixon and Khrushchev argue over merits of capitalism v communism. Nixon praised for his active defense+ earned him republican nomination. But JFK wins.

JFK

* Won in 1960 bc of his televised good looks
* Warned by eisenhower in his farewell address of the growing military-industrial complex: the US armed forces that made a pressure for high military spending during the cold war
* One of the youngest cabinets ever→ also his brother was attorney general
* Robert shifted FBI’s focus from domestic security to dealing w organized crime/civil rights
* Assassinated November 22, 1963 in Texas → LBJ-sworn in

New frontier

* Kennedy’s optimistic platform, setting high expectations for his administration. Hoped to improve education and health care through this platform.
* Fed money to education, healthcare programs, civil rights, etc
* Most of these were blocked by congress

Peace corp

Jfk proposed sending volunteers to developing countries to teach them America’s knowledge + build relationships that would prevent them from being communist

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Southerners hated the new frontier plans + constinetly vetoed down the bills in congress

The Apollo 1969

Jfk proposed a multibillion project to put a person on the moon

* Space lift that landed Neil Armstrong+Buzz aldrin on the moon
* Reasserted US dominance+ international prestige(which was damaged after sputnik)

Berlin wall 1961

Built bc Khrushchev wanted to blockade Berlin to prevent eastern Berliners from leaving to US- controlled west germany.

Flexible response plan

* Gives the president a variety of options prepared by the military, and one would be picked based on the the severity of the crisis.

Although this had good intentions, it lowered the threshold for when diplomacy would be replaced w violence+ provided a limitless way to increase force

Bay of Pigs invasion 1961

thousand cuban exiles were sent to overthrow the regime. JFK didnt attack teh regime directly, but also didn’t provide the insurgents w enough resources, so they were forced to surrender.

Complete failure bc JFK doesnt send support

Brinkmanship

Defeat communism, roll back communist gains

Must push them to the brink of war till they back down+ thought containment policy too weak

Freedom Riders 1960

Ppl who wanted facilities that were serving interstate bus passengers to end segregation. They were often met with violent mobs, led JFK to dispatch some federal marshals to protect them.

Birmingham 1963

* MLK launched a campaign to fight discrimination in Alabama(the most segregated city in the US)→ peaceful protestors were teargassed and hurt by police, promoted JFK to deliver a speech dedicating himself to the civil rights movement
* He wrote “Letter from a Birmingham jail”

March on Washington

MLK held this march and then gave his dream speech + supported JFK’s proposed civil rights legislation

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Over 200,000 ppl came

More cv rights movement

1960, Greensboro, NC college students start the sit in movement after being denied service at a segregated lunch counter

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Student Nonviolent coordinating committee formed to coordinate the movement

new look policy

(DE)Build up of nuclear weapons to deter communist aggression -“more bang for buck”

Furthermore the threat of massive retaliation kept the two superpowers from fighting directly

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Problem was nuclear weapons couldnt be used in smaller conflicts in countries like Vietnam

Hungarian revolution 1956

Esienhower doesnt have the US come to aid the anti soviet rebellion

Eisenhower doctrine 1957

US promises economic and military aid to any middle east country threatened by communism

Guatemala 1954

The CIA helps overthrow the democratically elected leftist gov(Us doesnt want them in power bc of their socialist gov)

\-brutal dictator comes to power

Fidel Castro 1959

Leads a revolution in Cuba to remove the cuban dictator Batista from power

Begins to nationalize US owned buisnesses→ eisnehower orders embargo on Cuba→ Cuba moves closer to soviets→ cia trains cuban exiles to try and overthrow Castro

Eisenhower farewell address

* Warns about the **military industrial complex**
* concerned that the US was spending too much on the arms race + national defense and it would have a negeative impact on US society

Cuban missile crisis 1962

* Spy planes discover soviets were installing offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba → capable of hitting most US cities
* Kennedy orders a naval blockade of Cuba(calls it a quarantine) to pressure the soviets to remove the missiles
* World was extremely close to a potential nuclear war
* The naval quarantine continues until Societs remove the missiles→ then JFK promises to not invade Cuba+ they would later remove their missiles in Turkey
* Impact: hotline btwn DC and Moscow to prevent future crisis
* Effort to relax tensions: détente

LBJ

* President after JFK is killed in 1963
* Wanted to expand the reforms of the new deal→ Th egreat society
* Republicans dont like him
* Wins election of 1964

The Great society

* Dramatically increase size and scope of the fed gov but unlike the New Deal it will seek to advance civil rights
* Key areas of reform were immigration, civil rights, education funding, and medic aid
* **Medicare**: healthcare for those over 65
* **Medicaid**: healthcare for poor+ disabled
* Food stamp programs, fed $ for arts, public housing, regulation of auto industry etc.
* **Higher education act:** provided fed scholarships for college education
* overall expands the welfare state to those previously ignored(poor, disabled, elderly, + civil rights)

The other America

Written by Michael Harrington to catch the nation’s attention of the 40 million Americans living in poverty in the US→ Johnson responds and declares an “unconditional war on poverty”

Congress makes: Office of Economic Opportunity-anti poverty agency

\-head start program(free pre-schooling, literacy and legal programs created, job corps

Immigration and nationality act of 1965

Ends the quotas that were designed to restrict certain foreign nationalities

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Ends the quotas of the 1920s → huge immigration

Silent spring1962

* Rachael carson’s book that exposed used of pesticides
* Led to clean air and water acts for the US

civil rights act 1964

Segregation illegal in all public facilities and established **equal employment opportunity commission** that banned discrimination employment

24th amendment ratified 1964

Outlawed collection of poll taxes → more blacks can vote

Voting rights act 1965

Ended efforts to prevent black people from voting in the south→ Ex. banned literacy tests → MORE BLACKS VOTING IN THE DEEP SOUTH

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More info: in 1965 there was a march from selma to Montgomery that advocated for voting rights but they were stopped by police brutality→ LBJ sent fed troops to protect the nonviolent marchers

Civil rights radicalizes under LBJ

Watts riots 1965 :Broke out following an arrest of black motorists by white police officers

Malcom X emphasized black nationalism, self improvement, separatism

Black panthers: formed in 1966, confronted politicians, challenged the police, and protected black citizens from brutality.

Vietnam

1954: france loos battle at Dien bien Phu + abandon Vietnam

US supports South Vietnam leader Diem

JFK increased military advisors + troops in Vietnam

Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964

US ship, Maddox was attacked in the gulf of Tonkin→congress issued a “blank check” for LBJ to send ground troops into Vietnam

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Used as justification for increased US involvement in Vietnam war

Tet offensive 1968

Surprise attack by North Vietnam into the south during the Vietnamese new year → anti war protests intensify in US bc ppl were lied to that the war was ending soon

Nixon

* Won in 1968, tet offense, LBJ didnt run again, MLK killed, riots spread
* Wants to end vietnam war with “peace with honor”
* Appeals to the “silent majority” (those who support the war and aren’t protesting)
* Since the offense debate over vitenam intensify
* Resigned august 1974 because of his Watergate scandal
* Tapes of him in a cover up from being involved in 5 ppl into Watergate hotel to steal campaign secrets
* Believed in new federalism (transferring power from fed govt to the states)

My lai massacre 1968

Only surfaces in 1970

* US soldiers go into this village and gun down many innocent women and children

Nixon Doctrine

US would continue to honor its commitments, but countries in Asia would not be able to always rely on US ground troops(they need to do some of the fighting on their own

* “Vietnamization” calls for US to gradually withdraw US troops from Vietnam→ South vietnam would slowly take over the fighting themselves

Cambodia 1970

Nixon secretly bombs cambodia to destroy the Vietnamese communist bases there → protests erupt in response to the bombing

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After negotiatiosn w north vietnam ends → nixon orders a massive bombing

Distrust of govt

* Tet Offensive, My Lai Massacre, bombing of cambodia, Pentagon papers revealed that US govt from JFK onward deceived the US ppl abt the Vietnam war

War powers act

Context: public discovered Nixon’s 3500 bombing raids in cambodia

Passed by congress that sough to reduce war powers of the president

\-president must tell congress within 48hrs of sending troops into conflict

\-congress has to approve any military mission that lasted longer than 60 days

Vietnam war ends

1. Nixon strategy of Vietnamization
2. Widening the war
3. Secret negotiations btwn Kissinger and Le Duc Tho

Paris accords: cease fire signed 1973→ did not permanently end the fighting → by this point million of vietnamese dead, thousand american dead

By 1975 the US supported gov of south vietnam fell to communist rule-**Vietnam became a communist country**

Détente

 Nixon and Kissinger strengthened the US position in the world by taking advantage of the rivalry between the two Communist giants, China and the Soviet Union. Their diplomacy was praised for bringing about détente—a deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions. (Relaxation)

Nixon planned to use American trade, notably grain and high technology, to induce Soviet cooperation, while at the same time improving U.S.-China relations. In 1972, Nixon visited China, meeting with the Communist leaders and ending more than two decades of Sino-American hostility. 

He agreed to establish an American liaison mission in Beijing as the first step toward diplomatic recognition. The Soviets, who viewed China as a dangerous adversary, responded by agreeing to an arms control pact with the United States.

Strategic arms limitation talks SALT 1969

had been underway since 1969. During a visit to Moscow in 1972, Nixon signed two vital documents with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. This would be known as SALT I:

* The first limited the two superpowers to two hundred antiballistic missiles apiece. 
* The second froze the number of ballistic missiles for a 5-year period. 

This was the most important first step toward control of the nuclear arms race. 

Carter and the Cold War

o Carter signed the SALT II treaty with the Soviet Union in 1979, which provided for limiting the size of each superpower’s nuclear delivery system. The Senate never ratified the treaty. 

The Cold War resumed with full fury when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. The U.S. feared that the invasion might lead to a Soviet move to control the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

Carter reacted by issuing what became known as the **Carter Doctrine** which:

* halting grain exports and high technology to the Soviet Union
* and boycotting the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow.