SOC105 Midterm

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger societal forces.

Sociology

The systematic study of social behavior and human groups.

Social Sciences

Disciplines that study human social behavior, institutions, and functions scientifically.

Theoretical Perspectives

Basic viewpoints used to analyze social phenomena.

Functionalist Perspective

Views society as a stable, orderly system where each part contributes to overall stability.

Conflict Perspective

Emphasizes power struggles and competition over scarce resources.

Interactionist Perspective

Focuses on how individuals interpret and navigate everyday social interactions.

Social Facts

Aspects of social life that shape individual actions.

Common Sense vs. Sociology

Sociology challenges common sense by using systematic research.

Research Methods

Systematic plans for gathering data.

Culture

The languages, customs, beliefs, rules, arts, and collective identities developed by social groups.

Social Structures

The complex pattern of relationships that shape society.

Macro-sociology vs. Micro-sociology

Macro-studies widespread social processes, Micro-focuses on small groups and individual interactions.

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired through observation or experimentation.

Positivism

A scientific approach to sociology.

Quantitative Methods

Research methods that gather numeric data for analysis.

Qualitative Methods

Research methods that collect non-numeric data.

Social Inequality

A condition where members of society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige, or power.

Social Change

Significant alterations in behavior patterns, culture, norms, and values over time.

Social Institutions

Complexes of norms, values, and rules that organize social life.

Durkheim's Theory of Social Solidarity

Society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols.

Weber's Verstehen

Understanding social behavior by considering people’s emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.

Marx's Class Conflict

The struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat in capitalist societies.

Ethics in Sociology

Standards guiding research and practice.

Sociological Theories

Explanations of how and why social facts are related.

Scientific Method

A systematic series of steps to ensure objectivity in research.

Hypothesis

A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Variable

A measurable trait or characteristic that changes under different conditions.

Operational Definition

A specific explanation of an abstract concept for research purposes.

Sampling

The process of selecting a representative group from a population for study.

Random Sample

A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Validity

The degree to which a measure reflects the phenomenon being studied.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure in producing results.

Research Design

A detailed plan for obtaining data scientifically.

Survey

A study providing information on how people think and act.

Experiment

A research effort to measure the effect of one variable on another.

Control Group

Subjects not exposed to the independent variable.

Experimental Group

Subjects exposed to the independent variable.

Field Research

Studying social life in its natural setting through observation and interviews.

Participant Observation

A research strategy involving participation in and observation of subjects’ daily lives.

Case Study

An intensive analysis of a single event, situation, or individual.

Ethnography

The study of an entire social setting through extended fieldwork.

Secondary Analysis

Research using previously collected and publicly accessible data.

Content Analysis

Systematic coding and recording of data based on a rationale.

Ethical Considerations in Research

Guidelines ensuring participants are not harmed and are fully informed.

Longitudinal Study

Research collecting data on the same subjects over time.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research based on observations at a single point in time.

Causal Relationship

A relationship where changes in one variable directly cause changes in another.

Correlation

A relationship between two factors, not implying causation.

Triangulation

Using multiple methods to validate research results.

Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling methods not based on random selection.

Convenience Sampling

Choosing individuals easiest to reach, risking bias.

Purposive Sampling

Selecting participants based on the study’s purpose and researcher’s judgment.

Snowball Sampling

A technique where existing subjects recruit future subjects from their acquaintances.

Mixed-Methods Research

Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study.

Informed Consent

Informing participants about research risks and benefits.

Debriefing

Explaining the research to participants after their involvement.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee ensuring ethical standards in research.

Cultural Diversity

The existence of various cultural groups within a society.

Cultural Change

Changes in culture over time due to innovation, discovery, and diffusion.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by one’s own standards.

Cultural Relativism

Judging a culture by its own standards.

Globalization

The spread of cultural traits across societies.

Material vs. Nonmaterial Culture

Material culture includes physical objects; nonmaterial culture includes ideas and beliefs.

Cultural Lag

The delay between material innovations and changes in cultural practices.

Cultural Transmission

Passing culture from one generation to the next.

Cultural Capital

Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility.

Socialization

The process of learning and internalizing cultural beliefs, values, and norms.

Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self

Individuals develop self-images through interactions with others.

Mead’s Stages of Self

Stages in which children develop self-awareness through role-play.

Goffman’s Presentation of the Self

Theoretical framework for understanding behavior in social interactions.

Socialization Perspectives

Different viewpoints on the importance of socialization.

Anticipatory Socialization

Preparing for future role changes.

Resocialization

Discarding old behaviors and adopting new ones.

Social Structure

The organized patterns of relationships and social arrangements.

Statuses

Social positions individuals hold.

Roles

Expectations and responsibilities associated with a status.

Groups

Collections of individuals interacting together.

Social Networks

A web of social relationships connecting individuals and groups.

Durkheim’s Solidarity

Concept of social integration based on shared values.

Tonnies’ Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Concept distinguishing between community-oriented and society-oriented relationships.

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution

Technological progress as a driver of social change.

Dorothy Smith

Focuses on the experiences of marginalized individuals.

Socialization Agents

Individuals or groups teaching cultural norms and values.

Social Control

Mechanisms encouraging conformity to societal norms.

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms.

Stigma

A negative label associated with deviance.

Crime

A violation of laws punishable by legal systems.

Stratification

The hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society.

Social Class

Groups of people with similar economic positions.

Social Mobility

The movement between social classes.

Race

A socially constructed category based on physical characteristics.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage.

Prejudice

Negative attitudes or beliefs about a group.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment based on group characteristics.

Gender

Socially constructed roles based on being male or female.

Sex

Biological differences between males and females.

Gender Roles

Societal expectations of behavior based on gender.

Patriarchy

A system where men hold primary power.

Feminism

Advocacy for gender equality.