SOC105 Midterm

Sociological Imagination

• Definition: The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger societal forces (C. Wright Mills).

Sociology

• Definition: The systematic study of social behavior and human groups, focusing on how actions and consciousness shape and are shaped by cultural and social structures.

Social Sciences

• Definition: Disciplines that study human social behavior, institutions, and functions scientifically (e.g., anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology).

Theoretical Perspectives

• Definition: Basic viewpoints used to analyze social phenomena:

  • Functionalist Perspective: Society as a stable system with interrelated parts working together.

  • Conflict Perspective: Focuses on competition and change driven by power struggles.

  • Interactionist Perspective: Examines everyday interactions and their meanings.

Functionalist Perspective

• Definition: Views society as a stable, orderly system where each part contributes to overall stability.

Conflict Perspective

• Definition: Emphasizes power struggles and competition over scarce resources (rooted in Karl Marx’s ideas).

Interactionist Perspective

• Definition: Focuses on how individuals interpret and navigate everyday social interactions.

Social Facts

• Definition: Aspects of social life (e.g., economy, religion) that shape individual actions (Émile Durkheim).

Common Sense vs. Sociology

• Definition: Sociology challenges common sense by using systematic research to provide factual knowledge about social behavior.

Research Methods

• Definition: Systematic plans for gathering data (e.g., surveys, ethnography, experiments, historical research).

Culture

• Definition: The languages, customs, beliefs, rules, arts, and collective identities developed by social groups.

Social Structures

• Definition: The complex pattern of relationships that shape society and influence justice.

Macro-sociology vs. Micro-sociology

• Macro-sociology: Studies widespread social processes.

• Micro-sociology: Focuses on small groups and individual interactions.

Empirical Evidence

• Definition: Information acquired through observation or experimentation, used to test theories.

Positivism

• Definition: A scientific approach to sociology that observes and measures social phenomena to predict behavior.

Quantitative Methods

• Definition: Research methods that gather numeric data for analysis.

Qualitative Methods

• Definition: Research methods that collect non-numeric data (e.g., interviews, observations).

Social Inequality

• Definition: A condition where members of society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige, or power.

Social Change

• Definition: Significant alterations in behavior patterns, culture, norms, and values over time.

Social Institutions

• Definition: Complexes of norms, values, and rules that organize social life (e.g., family, education, religion).

Durkheim's Theory of Social Solidarity

• Definition: Society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols.

Weber's Verstehen

• Definition: Understanding social behavior by considering people’s emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.

Marx's Class Conflict

• Definition: The struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers) in capitalist societies.

Ethics in Sociology

• Definition: Standards guiding research and practice, including confidentiality and avoiding harm to participants.

Sociological Theories

• Definition: Explanations of how and why social facts are related, ranging from micro-level interactions to macro-level patterns.

Scientific Method

• Definition: A systematic, organized series of steps to ensure objectivity in research.

Hypothesis

• Definition: A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Variable

• Definition: A measurable trait or characteristic that changes under different conditions (independent vs. dependent).

Operational Definition

• Definition: A specific explanation of an abstract concept for research purposes.

Sampling

• Definition: The process of selecting a representative group from a population for study.

Random Sample

• Definition: A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Validity

• Definition: The degree to which a measure reflects the phenomenon being studied.

Reliability

• Definition: The consistency of a measure in producing results.

Research Design

• Definition: A detailed plan for obtaining data scientifically (e.g., surveys, experiments).

Survey

• Definition: A study (interview or questionnaire) providing information on how people think and act.

Experiment

• Definition: A research effort to measure the effect of one variable on another.

Control Group

• Definition: Subjects not exposed to the independent variable in an experiment.

Experimental Group

• Definition: Subjects exposed to the independent variable in an experiment.

Field Research

• Definition: Studying social life in its natural setting through observation and interviews.

Participant Observation

• Definition: A research strategy involving participation in and observation of subjects’ daily lives.

Case Study

• Definition: An intensive analysis of a single event, situation, or individual.

Ethnography

• Definition: The study of an entire social setting through extended fieldwork.

Secondary Analysis

• Definition: Research using previously collected and publicly accessible data.

Content Analysis

• Definition: Systematic coding and recording of data based on a rationale.

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Definition: Guidelines ensuring participants are not harmed and are fully informed (e.g., informed consent).

Longitudinal Study

• Definition: Research collecting data on the same subjects over time to understand long-term processes.

Cross-Sectional Study

• Definition: Research based on observations at a single point in time.

Causal Relationship

• Definition: A relationship where changes in one variable directly cause changes in another.

Correlation

• Definition: A relationship between two factors, not implying causation.

Triangulation

• Definition: Using multiple methods to validate research results.

Non-Probability Sampling

• Definition: Sampling methods not based on random selection (e.g., convenience sampling).

Convenience Sampling

• Definition: Choosing individuals easiest to reach, risking bias.

Purposive Sampling

• Definition: Selecting participants based on the study’s purpose and researcher’s judgment.

Snowball Sampling

• Definition: A technique where existing subjects recruit future subjects from their acquaintances.

Mixed-Methods Research

• Definition: Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study.

Informed Consent

• Definition: Informing participants about research risks and benefits before they agree to participate.

Debriefing

• Definition: Explaining the research to participants after their involvement, especially if deception was used.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Definition: A committee ensuring ethical standards in research and participant safety.

Culture

• Definition: The sum of social patterns, traits, products, and practices characterizing a society.

Components of Culture

• Symbols: Anything carrying a recognized meaning.

• Language: A system of symbols for communication.

• Values: Culturally defined standards for desirable behavior.

• Norms: Rules and expectations guiding behavior.

Cultural Diversity

• Subcultures: Groups with values differing from the mainstream.

• Countercultures: Groups rejecting dominant societal values.

Cultural Change

• Definition: Changes in culture over time due to innovation, discovery, and diffusion.

Ethnocentrism

• Definition: Judging another culture by one’s own standards.

Cultural Relativism

• Definition: Judging a culture by its own standards.

Globalization

• Definition: The spread of cultural traits across societies, impacting cultural identity and diversity.

Material vs. Nonmaterial Culture

• Material Culture: Physical objects defining a culture.

• Nonmaterial Culture: Ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.

Cultural Lag

• Definition: The delay between material innovations and changes in cultural practices.

Cultural Transmission

• Definition: Passing culture from one generation to the next through family, education, and institutions.

Cultural Capital

• Definition: Non-financial social assets (e.g., education, intellect) promoting social mobility (Pierre Bourdieu).

Socialization

• Definition: The process of learning and internalizing cultural beliefs, values, and norms.

Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self

• Definition: Individuals develop self-images through interactions with others.

Mead’s Stages of Self

• Play Stage: Children take on roles of others.

• Game Stage: Learn societal norms through complex activities.

• Generalized Other: Internalizing community expectations.

Goffman’s Presentation of the Self

• Front Stage: Behavior in front of others.

• Back Stage: Behavior when alone or relaxed.

Socialization Perspectives

• Functionalist: Essential for societal stability.

• Conflict: Reproduces inequality.

• Feminist: Reinforces gender inequality.

Anticipatory Socialization

• Definition: Preparing for future role changes (e.g., new job).

Resocialization

• Definition: Discarding old behaviors and adopting new ones (e.g., prison, military).

Social Structure

• Statuses:

  • Ascribed: Born into (e.g., race, ethnicity).

  • Achieved: Gained through effort (e.g., job title).

  • Master: Dominates other statuses (e.g., celebrity).

• Roles:

  • Role Conflict: Conflicting demands from different statuses.

  • Role Strain: Conflicts within a single role.

  • Role Exit: Leaving a role for another.

Groups

• Primary Groups: Intimate, face-to-face associations (e.g., family).

• Secondary Groups: Impersonal, task-focused groups (e.g., work teams).

• In-Groups vs. Out-Groups: Groups individuals identify with or oppose.

• Reference Groups: Groups used for self-evaluation.

Social Networks

• Definition: A web of social relationships connecting individuals and groups.

Durkheim’s Solidarity

• Mechanical Solidarity: Found in simple, traditional societies with shared values.

• Organic Solidarity: Found in complex societies with interdependence.

Tonnies’ Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

• Gemeinschaft: Bonds based on shared values and commitments.

• Gesellschaft: Relationships formed for practical purposes.

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution

• Definition: Technological progress drives cultural and societal evolution.

Dorothy Smith

• Definition: Understanding society by examining the experiences of those at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Socialization Agents

• Definition: Individuals, groups, or institutions that teach cultural norms and values (e.g., family, schools, peers, media).

Social Control

• Definition: Mechanisms that encourage conformity to societal norms, including formal (laws) and informal (peer pressure) methods.

Deviance

• Definition: Behavior that violates societal norms, leading to negative reactions.

Stigma

• Definition: A negative label or mark of disgrace associated with deviance or difference.

Crime

• Definition: A violation of formally enacted laws, punishable by legal systems.

Stratification

• Definition: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Social Class

• Definition: A group of people with similar levels of wealth, income, and occupation.

Social Mobility

• Definition: The movement of individuals or groups between social classes (e.g., upward or downward mobility).

Race

• Definition: A socially constructed category based on physical characteristics (e.g., skin color).

Ethnicity

• Definition: A shared cultural heritage, including language, religion, and traditions.

Prejudice

• Definition: Preconceived opinions or attitudes about a group, often negative.

Discrimination

• Definition: Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics like race, gender, or ethnicity.

Gender

• Definition: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female.

Sex

• Definition: Biological differences between males and females.

Gender Roles

• Definition: Societal expectations about how individuals should behave based on their gender.

Patriarchy

• Definition: A system where men hold primary power and dominate in roles of leadership.

Feminism

• Definition: Advocacy for gender equality and the dismantling of patriarchal systems.

Sexual Orientation

• Definition: A person’s emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

Family

• Definition: A social institution that binds people through kinship, marriage, or adoption.

Marriage

• Definition: A legally recognized union between two people, often involving social, economic, and emotional ties.

Religion

• Definition: A system of beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the sacred or divine.

Education

• Definition: The social institution responsible for transmitting knowledge, skills, and cultural values.

Economic Systems

• Definition: Systems that organize the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services (e.g., capitalism, socialism).

Political Systems

• Definition: Systems that govern the distribution of power and authority in society (e.g., democracy, authoritarianism).

Urbanization

• Definition: The process of population shifting from rural to urban areas.

Globalization

• Definition: The increasing interconnectedness of societies worldwide through trade, technology, and culture.

Social Movements

• Definition: Organized efforts by groups to promote or resist social change (e.g., civil rights movement, environmental movement).

Collective Behavior

• Definition: Spontaneous, unstructured behavior by large groups (e.g., riots, fads, panics).

Public Opinion

• Definition: The collective attitudes and beliefs of individuals on a particular issue.

Mass Media

• Definition: Forms of communication that reach large audiences (e.g., TV, internet, newspapers).

Social Change

• Definition: Significant alterations in societal structures, norms, and values over time.

Technology and Society

• Definition: The impact of technological advancements on social behavior, culture, and institutions.

Environmental Sociology

• Definition: The study of the relationship between societies and their natural environments.

Health and Society

• Definition: The study of how social factors (e.g., class, race, gender) influence health and illness.

Social Problems

• Definition: Issues that negatively affect large groups of people and require collective solutions (e.g., poverty, crime, inequality).

Symbolic Interactionism

• Definition: A micro-level theory focusing on how individuals create meaning through social interaction.

Functionalism

• Definition: A macro-level theory viewing society as a system of interrelated parts working together for stability.

Conflict Theory

• Definition: A macro-level theory emphasizing power struggles and inequality in society.

Feminist Theory

• Definition: A perspective focusing on gender inequality and advocating for women’s rights.

Postmodernism

• Definition: A perspective questioning grand narratives and emphasizing the diversity and fragmentation of contemporary society.

Cultural Capital

• Definition: Non-financial assets (e.g., education, intellect) that promote social mobility (Pierre Bourdieu).

Social Capital

• Definition: Resources gained through social networks and relationships.

Habitus

• Definition: The ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that shape behavior (Pierre Bourdieu).

Alienation

• Definition: A feeling of disconnection from work, society, or self, often discussed in Marxist theory.

Bureaucracy

• Definition: A formal organization with hierarchical structures, rules, and impersonal relationships.

Rationalization

• Definition: The process of replacing traditional, emotional, or value-based motivations with rational, efficient ones (Max Weber).

Iron Cage of Rationality

• Definition: Max Weber’s concept of how rational systems can trap individuals in dehumanizing structures.

Labeling Theory

• Definition: The idea that deviance is not inherent but rather a result of being labeled as deviant.

Dramaturgy

• Definition: Erving Goffman’s theory that social life is like a theatrical performance, with front-stage and back-stage behavior.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

• Definition: A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback.

Social Construction of Reality

• Definition: The idea that reality is created through social interactions and shared understandings.

Cultural Hegemony

• Definition: The dominance of one group’s cultural norms and values over others (Antonio Gramsci).

Intersectionality

• Definition: The interconnected nature of social categorizations (e.g., race, class, gender) and their overlapping effects on individuals.

Social Exchange Theory

• Definition: A theory that views social interactions as transactions aimed at maximizing rewards and minimizing costs.

World Systems Theory

• Definition: A macro-level theory analyzing global inequality through core, periphery, and semi-periphery nations (Immanuel Wallerstein).

Anomie

• Definition: A state of normlessness or lack of social regulation, leading to deviance (Émile Durkheim).

Meritocracy

• Definition: A system where individuals are rewarded based on ability and effort rather than social status.

Social Reproduction

• Definition: The process by which societal structures and inequalities are perpetuated across generations.

Cultural Imperialism

• Definition: The dominance of one culture over others, often through media and globalization.

Digital Divide

• Definition: The gap between those who have access to digital technology and those who do not.

Social Identity

• Definition: The part of an individual’s self-concept derived from membership in social groups.

Cultural Scripts

• Definition: Shared expectations about how people should behave in specific social situations.

Socialization Across the Lifespan

• Definition: The ongoing process of learning and adapting to social norms throughout life.

Social Darwinism

• Definition: The application of Darwin’s evolutionary theories to society, often used to justify inequality.

Cultural Assimilation

• Definition: The process by which minority groups adopt the culture of the dominant group.

Cultural Pluralism

• Definition: The coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society.

Social Cohesion

• Definition: The bonds that bring people together in a society.

Social Integration

• Definition: The degree to which individuals are connected to their community and society.