Chapter 8 - Emotion and Motivation

What do Evolutionary Theories of Emotion assume?

Emotions precede thought, are innate and universal, and serve adaptive functions

What does the Discrete Emotions Theory assume?

Humans experience only a small number of biologically-rooted and evolutionarily-useful “primary” emotions that are combined in complex ways to produce the full range of human emotion; emotions precede thought

What are the primary emotions?

Happiness, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust, Anger, Fear

What do Cognitive Theories of Emotion assume?

Thoughts produce/precede emotions, emotions arise out of the interpretation of bodily arousal or the external context, there are as many emotions as there are thoughts

James-Lange Theory

Stimulus → Physiological Response → Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus → Emotion and Physiological Response simultaneously

Somatic Marker Theory

Stimulus → (past responses, bodily reactions) → Emotion/Physiological response. We use our “gut reactions” to gauge how we should act

Two-Factor Theory

Stimulus → Experience Physiological Response → Interpret it to label the emotion

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

You are more likely to feel emotions that correspond to your facial features, could be due to C.C.

Hierarchy of Emotions

Universal, Basic, Subtle

Dual pathway of Emotion

Thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways → Amygdala (reaction), Cerebral Cortex (interpretation)

In terms of emotions, what roles do the cerebral cortex and the amygdala play?

The cerebral cortex is where the regulation and interpretation of emotions happens. The amygdala can process sensory input (coming from the thalamus) before interpretation by cortex and cause a physiological response

What is the relationship between eliciting stimuli and cognitive appraisal?

Eliciting stimuli is a stimuli (internal or external) that precedes a certain behaviour and causes a response, Cognitive Appraisal is the subjective interpretation/evaluation of eliciting stimuli

How do emotions direct attention?

Positive → Broaden thinking, exploration, and skill learning

Negative → Narrow attention, increase physiological activations, immune system decreases (longer periods)

What is the relationship between culture and emotion?

There are cultural similarities in appraisals for basic emotions, but differences for other emotions. The way emotions are expressed, interpreted, or viewed are subjective to culture.

What are the types of motivational conflict?

Approach-approach (yes-yes), approach-avoid (yes-no), avoid-avoid (no-no), delay discounting (people will choose what has consequences in the future, later consequences = decreased in value)

What is the achievement goal theory?

Focuses on the manner in which success is defined both by the individual and within the achievement situation itself. Achievement is available to everyone, but motivation and value of achievement is subjective.

What is the difference between Mastery Orientation and Performance Orientation?

I want to be the best vs. I have to be seen as the best

People with a high fear of failure have either a approach or avoidance focus towards mastery and performance, what is the difference?

1. Master the task, be the best, be noticed, gain

2. Avoid mistakes, looking bad, being last, losing

What are some reasons why high-achievers will strive harder for success?

Sense of responsibility, risk of failure, potential feedback, intermediate chance of success

Why do people need achievement and are motivated to succeed?

They desire for accomplishment and excellence, stable personality characteristics, and individuality. They have motive for success and fear of failure.

Sexual Orientation

Emotion and erotic preference for partners of particular sex, includes: self-identity, sexual attraction, and actual sexual behaviour

What are the determinants of sexual orientation?

Current theories include hereditary predisposition, biological/psychological/environmental factors, people are just born that way and we don’t know why

What is the difference between Social Learning Theory predictions and Catharsis Theory predictions when it comes to pornography and its relatedness to sexual violence?

Learning through observation (viewers are influenced into viewing aggressive behaviour as acceptable) vs. Freudian concepts of inborn aggression, repressed unconscious sexual desires, porn = safe outlet. Both theories are not supported by research.

What is the difference between genetic and environmental influences when it comes to obesity?

Basal metabolism and energy storage tendencies, whereby 40-70% of body mass is genetically related, vs. access to inexpensive, high-fat or carb foods and reduced physical activity due to technology

What is the objectification theory?

Viewing body as object, increases body shame and anxiety, western society teaches this mostly regarding women

How can we apply hunger to Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory?

(Anticipation) Eating is positively reinforced by good tastes, eating is negatively reinforced by hunger reduction

What is the difference between Ghrelin, Leptin, and the blood glucose level cycle?

Peptide that signals hunger and is secreted by stomach and small intestine

Hormone that signals brain to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure and is secreted by fat cells

Pattern of increase and decrease in blood glucose levels → generates feelings of hunger

What is the difference between Drive Theory and Incentive Theory?

Push vs. Pull, eg. hunger → biology provides a push vs. anticipation/expectation of flavour provides a pull

What is the self-determination theory?

Focuses on internal sources of motivation, including a need for personal growth and fulfillment, is a combination of psychodynamic and humanistic views.

What is the difference between psychodynamic theories and humanistic theories?

Freud proposed that most behaviour came from unconscious impulses and psychological defence. Maslow proposed that people are motivated to perform actions by the desire to meet certain needs: deficiency needs (physical/social survival) and growth needs (unique to humans, develop full potential)

What is Freud’s Dual-Instinct model?

Behaviour comes from unconscious impulses (naturally want to be expressed) and psychological defences (want to keep impulses ‘at bay’)

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Performing an activity for its own sake (eg. for fun) vs. Performing an activity to obtain external reward or to avoid punishment (eg. for money)

Incentive Theory vs. Expectancy Theory

Something that motivates or encourages an organism to do something (want, not need, so pull not push), focus on the pull of external stimuli even in the absence of biological need, subjective to the person.

Motivation = expectancy x incentive value, goal-directed behaviours are driven by strength of expectation and value of goal (incentive)

What is motivation?

Process that influences goal-directed behaviour, and influences direction, persistence, and vigour

What is the relationship between instinct theory and evolutionary psychology?

It’s based on Darwin’s theory of evolution → Instinct motivates behaviour, and instinct is the inherited predisposition to behave on a certain way in response to certain stimuli (predictable, genetic, found in all species, survival-orientated)

Instinct Theory 2.0

Modern evolutionary psychology view, psychological motives based on evolution, genes related to behaviours that increase chances of survival and reproductive, adaptive significance. Based on evolution, not a direct result of it.

How can we connect people with drug abuse problems, the incentive theory, and the drive theory?

Using heroin again to get high (addiction) vs. Using heroin again to reduce withdrawal and maintain homeostasis of that high

What are the three components of the self-determination theory?

Competence → Reflects human need for mastery, exploration, and growth

Autonomy → self-determination, experience actions as a result of free choice

Relatedness → Form meaningful bonds with others, support