AP Psychology Flashcards

This is taken from Quizlet

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all along phenomenon.)

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction

Operational definitions

precise statements of the procedures (operations) used to define independent and dependent variables.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case study

a descriptive research strategy in which one person is studied in great depth

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

False consensus effect

is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic observation

involves observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Correlation

a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well one factor can be predicted from the other. Correlations can be positive or negative.

Scatterplot

a depiction of the relationship between two variables by means of a graphed cluster of dots.

Illusory correlation

the false perception of a relationship between two events when none exists.

Experiment

a research strategy in which a researcher directly manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) in order to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variables; experiments therefore make it possible to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Placebo

an inert substance or condition that is administered as a test of whether an experimental subjects who mistakenly thinks a treatment

Double-blind procedure

a control procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the research subjects are aware of which condition is in effect. It is used to prevent experimenters' and subjects' expectations from influencing the results of an experiment.

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

Experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control condition

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment

the procedure of assigning subjects to the experimental and control conditions by chance in order to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Independent variable

the factor being manipulated and tested by the investigator.

Dependent variable

the factor being measured by the investigator.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution; it is the simplest measure of central tendency to determine.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Medians

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Range

a measure of variation computed as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

the average amount by which the scores in a distribution deviate around the mean. Because it is based on every score in the distribution

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Phrenology

Theory that bumps on the skull reflected our mental abilities and personality traits

Neuron

A nerve cell

Dendrite

Receives messages from other cells

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and speeds impulses

Action Potential

A neural impulse that travels down the axon

Threshold

Stimulation required to trigger an impulse

Synapse

Space between the axon tip and the dendrite

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that travel between synaptic gaps

Acetylcholine

Muscle action, learning, and memory

Dopamine

Movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin

Mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Norepinephrine

Alertness and arousal

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate

Major excitatory transmitter

Endorphins

Opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Nerves

Neural cables containing many axons

Sensory Neurons

Carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS

Interneurons

CNS neurons that communicate between sensory and motor neurons

Motor Neurons

Carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands

Somatic Nervous System

Controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body to conserve energy

Reflex

Simple inborn response to a sensory stimulus

Neural Networks

Interconnected neural cells

Lesion

Tissue destruction

EEG

Amplified recording of electrical brain waves

CT

Series of X-ray photographs

PET

Visual display of brain activity that monitors glucose

MRI

Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images

Brainstem

Controls automatic survival functions

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Formation

Controls arousal

Thalamus

Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movement and balance

Limbic System

Associated with emotions and drives for food and sex

Parts of the Lymbic System

Hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Amygdala

Linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

Directs several basic maintenance functions and governs the endocrine system via the pituitary

Cerebral Cortex

Ultimate control center

Glial Cells

Support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobe

Involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans and judgements

Parietal Lobe

Includes the sensory cortex

Occipital Lobe

Includes visual areas

Temporal Lobe

Includes auditory areas

Motor Cortex

Area at frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

Area at parietal lobe that registers and processes sensations

Association Areas

Areas not involved with motor or sensory functions that are involved with higher mental functions

Aphasia

Impairment of language

Broca's Area

Controls language expression through directing muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

Involved in language comprehension and expression

Corpus Callosum

Neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres

threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes

Chromosomes

complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

DNA

biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes

a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Genes

the complete instructions for making an organism

consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes

Genome

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Natural Selection

random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides

the source of all genetic diversity

Mutations

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using the principles of natural selection

Evolutionary Psychology

in psychology, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

Gender

study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Behavior Genetics

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Environment

develop from separate eggs genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share the fetal environment

Fraternal Twins