AQA Psychology - Biopsychology

Paper 2 - only named researchers are Broca + Wernicke

What is the central nervous system made of?

brain and spinal cord

What is the peripheral nervous system made of?

Autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system

What is the autonomic nervous system made of?

Sympathetic division and parasympathetic division

What are sensory neurones?

Neurones that carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system

What are motor neurones?

Neurones that connect the CNS to muscles and glands

What are **relay** neurones?

Neurones that connect sensory neurones and motor neurones (short dendrites and axons)

What is the role of the CNS?

It controls the brain and regulating the body's phsyiological processes.

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?

Regulates **INVOLUNTARY** actions needed to function (digestion, heartbeat etc)

What is an **excitatory** neurotransmitter?

Increases **positive charge** in post synaptic neurone (eg @@adrenaline@@) and the chance of another action potential being fired

What is an inhibitory neurotransmitter?

Increases **negative charge** in post synaptic neurone (eg @@Serotonin@@) and decreases the chance of another action potential being fired.

Explain **synaptic transmission**

1. Action potential reaches axon terminal
2. Calcium channels **open**
3. **Ca2+** causes **vesicles** to release neurotransmitter
4. Neurotransmitter crosses synapse
5. Neurotransmitter **binds** to neuroreceptors
6. Triggers signal in Post synaptic neurone

What is the endocrine sysytem?

A collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate human functions - works using a negative feedback loop

Give an example of the endocrine system in action

* Hypothalamus sends signal to pituary gland
* Pituary Gland secretes a stimulating hormone into bloodstream
* Adrenal Gland produces target hormone
* Hypothalamus shuts down secreteing hormone and pituary shuts down stimulating hormone to balanc target hormone levels

Give an example of a major gland in the endocrine system

* Pituary Gland
* Adrenal Gland
* Ovaries
* Testes

What is a hormone?

A chemical messenger circulating the bloodstream

What does the pituitary gland do?

Anterior secretes cortisol and ACTH \n Posterior secretes Oxytocin

What is a target Cell?

Specific cells which have receptor sites which bind to specific hormones

What is the sympathetic response?

* Increased heart rate
* Dilate pupils
* Inhibited saliva production

What is the parsympathetic response?

* Decreased Heart rate
* Decreased blood pressure
* Increased Digestion

What is the SAM pathway?

1. **Hypothalamus** commands the…
2. **AUTONOMIC Nervous system** to activate the…
3. **SYMPATHETIC** branch stimulating the…
4. **ADRENAL MEDULLA** to release…
5. **ADRENALINE** and **NORADRENALINE** activating the…
6. **FIGHT/FLIGHT** response

\
What does **Taylor et al. (2000)** suggest about the gender differences in fight or flight?

Females have a 'tend and befriend' response more often than not, linked to higher oxytocin levels i.e holding babies in a situation - **BETA BIAS**

Give one **limitation** of FIGHT or FLIGHT

**Maladaptive to modern day stressors** - we're unable to do anything w/ excess cortisol + adrenaline causing **sickness** i.e hypertension, colds and stress

What is **localisation**?

The theory that **specific** areas of the brain have **specific** **biological** and **psychological** functions

Which area of the brain is this?

Frontal lobe/motor cortex

Which area of the brain is this?

Occipital lobe/ visual cortex

Which area of the brain is this?

Temporal lobe/ auditory centres

Which area of the brain is this?

Parietal lobe / somatosensory cortex

Where is **Broca’s area** found?

**Left** side of the **frontal** lobe

Where is **Wernicke**’s area found?

**Left** side of the **temporal** lobe

What is the role of the **somatosensory cortex**?

The somatosensory cortex is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information

What is the role of the **motor cortex**?

It is responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements

What is the role of the **auditory centre**?

Located in the temporal lobe, the auditory centres are concerned with hearing

What is the role of the **visual centre**?

Located in the occipital lobe, the visual cortex is responsible for visual processing.

Why is **equipotentiality** a limitation of localisation?

Equipotentiality is a limitation of localisation because it suggests that **all parts of the brain region** may be able to perform any given function. This suggests localision is reductionistic + too simple

Why do **apahasia studies** show support for **localisation** of language centres?

Aphasia studies have consistently found that **damage** to specific areas of the brain, such as **Broca's and Wernicke's** **areas**, can result in specific language deficits.

Give an **issue or debate** regarding the localisation of brain function

### %%Biologically reductionism%%

Localisation is **biologically reductionist** in nature and tries to reduce very complex human behaviours and cognitive processes to one specific brain region

What is **hemispheric lateralisation**?

The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain for a particular physical and psychological functions e.g. the left is dominant for language, and the right excels at visual motor tasks

What are the **functions** of **left hemisphere**?

Control of **right** side of body, right visual field, speech, understanding written + spoken language, logical thinking, analytical tasks

What are the **functions** of **right hemisphere**?

Control of **left** side of body, left visual field, spatial awareness, creativity, recognising faces, musical ability, emotional content of language, drawing

What is the **corpus callosum** and **what is its function**?

The corpus callosum **connects** the two hemispheres of the brain + allows the 2 sides together

What is an **issue/debate** with lateralisation?

### %%Nomothetic/Idiographic%%

↳ The idea of lateralisation iself is nomothetic however the research that support this uses case studies as support which is **idiographic**

What were the **findings** of **Sperry and Gazzaniga's (1967) study**?

* Left and right hemispheres of the brain have different functions
* Information presented to one hemisphere cannot be accessed by the other hemisphere
* Each hemisphere can operate independently

Describe the experimental design of **Sperry and Gazzaniga's (1967)** study

* Quasi Experiment
* Small Sample (11 pps)
* Case Study

What is an **advantage** of **brain lateralisation**?

It is **adaptive** as we can use one hemisphere for a particular task and free up the other for a different task

What is a **disadvantage** of **brain lateralisation**?

==**Szaflarski et. al (2006)**== found that after **25** lateralisation **decreased** with each decade of life - this is known as **cognitive decline**

What is **plasticity**?

The brains tendency to change and adapt (**functionally** **and structurally**) as a result of **experiences**, **new learning** or **training**. ==Functional plasticity decreases with age==

What is **functional recovery**?

The brains ability to **redistribute** or **transfer functions** usually performed by damaged areas, **to not damaged area(s)**

Give research support for **Functional Recovery**

 **Taijiri et al. (2013)**

 They found that stem cells provided to rats after brain trauma showed a **clear development of neuron-like cells in the area of injury**. This demonstrates the ability of the brain to create **new connections** using neurons manufactured by stem cells

What is **neural reorganisation?**

The transfer of functions to undamaged areas

What is **axon regeneration?**

When new neurons may grow and/or new connections may form to compensate for the damaged areas where neurons are lost

Give an example of research into **plasticity**

### ^^McGuire et al (2000)^^

↳ Looked at the **brains** of **London cab drivers** who had taken ‘The Knowledge’ exam 

* They found significantly **more volume of grey matter** in **posterior hippocampus** compared to a control

Give research support for plasticity from animal studies

* **Kempermann** (1999) conducted a study on mice
* He found that environmental enrichment increased the production of **new neurons** in the **hippocampus**, a brain region important for learning and memory.
* This study provided evidence for the concept of neuroplasticity, which suggests that the brain is capable of changing and adapting in response to environmental stimuli

Give an **issue/debate** with neuroplasticity

### ^^Nature/Nurture^^

↳ Neuroplasticity takes an interactionist approach where it considers both the environment and biological predisposition in its develoment

What is **spatial resolution**?

The smallest measurement available - greater spatial resolution to allows discrimination between d**ifferent brain regions** with **greater accuracy**

What is temporal resolution?

How quickly it can detect changes in brain activity

Describe the **procedure** of an **fMRI**

* fMRI measures **blood flow changes** to **detect brain activity.**
* Patients lie in a tube-like machine while **magnetic fields** and **radio waves** create brain images.
* They **perform tasks** or rest during the scan.
* Images show **active brain areas**.
* fMRI is used to diagnose neurological disorders

Give a **strength** of **fMRIs**

* Non-invasive
* More data means more understanding of **localisation of function**
* Good **spatial resolution** (1-2mm)
* Determine areas of function with **greater accuracy**

Give a **weakness** of **fMRIs**

* Poor temporal resolution (1-4 secs) = unable to predict with high accuracy the onset of brain activity; Don't provide direct measure of neural activity - changes in blood flow indicate activity, but can't associate it with a specific function

What is an **EEG**?

### Electroencephalagram

* EEG is a non-invasive test that measures electrical activity in the brain.
* Electrodes are placed on the scalp to detect the electrical signals produced by the brain.
* The test is used to diagnose and monitor conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain injuries.
* EEG can also be used to study brain function and activity in research settings.

Give a **strength** of EEGs

* Used in clinical diagnosis, e.g. epilepsy
* Has **real world application**
* **High temporal resolution** (detect changes at 1 millisecond)
* Accurately measure particular task with associated brain activity


* Cheap

Give a **weakness** of **EEGs**

* Only detect superficial brain activity can't look at deeper parts, e.g. hippocampus
* **Poor spatial resolution** - can't pinpoint where electrical signal originated from
* **Unable to distinguish** between activities from different but adjacent parts

What is an **ERP**?

### Event Related Potential

* It measures the **electrical activity of the brain in response to a stimulus**
* Electrodes are placed on the **scalp** to record the brain activity
* The resulting waveform is analyzed to determine **cognitive processes** such as attention, memory, and language
* ERP provides insight into the **neural mechanisms** underlying cognitive processes
* It can identify **abnormalities** in brain function associated with **various disorders.**

Give a **strength** of **ERPs**

* Measure processing of stimuli in absence of behavioural response, e.g. reaction to seeing an unfamiliar object
* They can monitor processing of stimulus without requiring person to respond

Give a **weakness** of **ERPs**

* Lack validity as can't completely eliminate background noise

↳ could be influenced by extraneous variables, so cautious generalising

What is a **post-mortem** exam?

* Analysing the brains of someone after they've died

↳ most likely if they have a rare disorder or experienced u

usual deficits in mental processes or behaviour

* Areas of damage examined to try and **correlate** to **structural abnormalities**

Give a **strength** of **post-mortems**

* More **detailed** exam of anatomical areas of brain, e.g. hippocampus and hypothalamus
* Contributed towards understanding of key processes in the brain, e.g. making **link between language and the Brocas and Wernickes areas**

Give a weakness of **post-mortems**

* Can't establish cause and effect as
* Only shows physiology, not actual brain activity
* Confounding influences, e.g. disease, time between death and examination, medications, age
* Retrospective meaning they can't follow up on interesting findings

What are **biological rhythms**?

Cyclic changes in body activity

What are **endogenous pacemakers**?

**Internal body clocks**

↳ They control the SCN and pineal gland for the circadian sleep-wake cycle

Give research evidence to support **endogenous pacemakers**

### ^^DeCoursey et al. (2000)^^

* He destroyed **SCN** in **30** chipmunks which destroyed their sleep wake cycle
* They were then transferred back to their natural habitat
* A **significant** number of them had been **killed by predators** as they were awake when they should have been aslep (and vice versa) leaving them **vulnerable to attack**

What are **exogenous zeitgebers**?

**External cues** that affect our **biological rhythms**, e.g. light on sleep-wake cycle

What are **circadian rhythms**?

Type of biological rhythm where a pattern of behaviour occurs, or reoccurs, approx. every 24 hours. Its set and reset by environment (light and temp), e.g. **sleep wake cycle**

Give an example of **research** into **circadian rhythms**

### ^^Siffre (1962)^^

↳ Spent time **underground** (no natural light, sounds) for 2 and 6 months (he did it twice)

Found that his biological rhythm settled to **25 hours**, with him falling asleep on a regular basis

Give a strength of **circadian rhythms**

* Practical application to shift work
* **Practical** + **economic** implications as can **maintain** **worker productivity** + **prevent workplace accidents**
* Useful for timing drug dosing
* Supporting evidence (Siffre) = increased validity

Give a **limitation** of **circadian rhythms**

* Research lacks external validity as small sample
* Siffre’s research is **idiographic**
* Doesn't look at gender or age influence
* Poor control in studies, e.g. only assuming natural not artificial light having an influence = lacks validity

What is the **SCN**?

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a cluster of nerves, thant link with other rgions that control sleep and arousal, to reulate circadian rhythms

↳ Sends signals to the **pineal gland** increasing melatonin production at night and decreasing it in the day

^^**Negative feedback loop**^^

Give an **issue/debate** regarding **Circadian Rhythms**

### ^^**Reductionism** ^^

↳ Sleep/Wake cycle is **reductionist** as it reduces the functioning of **sleep cycles** to the **biological** control - SCN, and ignores **psychological** **factors** such as **stress**

Give **research support** for **Exogenous Zeitgeibers**

### Campbell and Murphy (1998)

↳ They monitored the body temperatures of 15 volunteers who slept in a laboratory

* They introduced light to the during the night at a series of intervals by **shining a beam of light onto the back of their knees**
* They were woken at different times and a light pad was shone on the back of their knees
* @@**The participant’s circadian rhythms were disrupted by up to three hours**@@
* This shows that it is not **necessary for light** just to enter the **eyes** to have a **physiological effect** on biological rhythms and shows the EZ do have an effect on our biological rhythms

Give **research weaknesses** of EZ’s and EP’s

* Issue of generalising animal studies to humans
* Lack of reliability found for exogenous zeitgebers

What are **Infradian rhythms**?

**Infrequent** - biological rhythm with duration of **over 24 hours**, e.g. the menstrual cycle

Give an example of an **Infradian Rhythm**

### Menstrual cycle

↳ approx. 28 days

* ovulation occurs in middle when oestrogen is highest
* next progesterone increases to prep for pregnancy
* If pregnancy doesn’t occur egg is absorbed and leaves with womb lining

Give **research support** for **Infradian Rhythms**

### ^^Stern and McClintock^^

↳ 10 year longditudinal study

* 29 women with irregular periods, **collected pheromones from 9** from armpit using cotton wool


* Other **20** had it rubbed on their upper lip; pads were collected on different days of the cycle
* **68% experienced changes to their menstrual cycle which bought it closer to their ‘donors’**

What is the **endogenous pacemaker** for the menstrual cycle?

Hormones

What is the **Exogenous Zeitgeber**?

* **Pheremones** of other women
* Stress
* Diet

Explain the **evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle**

* Beneficial for women to fall pregnant around the same time
* Collective caregving to the social group

What is an **Ultradian Rhythm**?

Biological rhythm that lasts **less than 24 hours**, e.g. stages of sleep

Sleep cycle

Has 5 stages it goes through (1-4, REM) that altogether spans 90-120 mins

Stage 1 of the sleep cycle

Light sleep, easily awoken, have alpha (restful) and theta (between sleep and wake) brainwaves

Stage 2 of the sleep cycle

Between light and deep sleep, breathing + heart rate slows; slower brainwaves, mainly theta

Stage 3 of the sleep cycle

Deep sleep begins, muscle activity decreases; slow delta waves, but also some fast ones

Stage 4 of the sleep cycle

Deep sleep (very hard to be awoken); almost all delta waves

REM stage of the sleep cycle

Dreaming occurs, eyelids can be seen flickering; brainwaves reach similar levels to when awake

Give a **strength** of Ultradian Rhythms

Reseearch Support

\

Give a **weakness** of Ultradian Rhythms

* Often carried out in sleep labs

↳ Low Ecological Validity

↳ High control

Hormones released by adrenal glands

Adrenaline and Cortisol

What was the procedure of **Sperry and Gazzaniga's (1967)** study?

* Sperry and Gazzaniga's (1967) study involved **split-brain patients who had undergone surgery to sever the corpus callosum**
* The researchers presented visual stimuli to either the left or right visual field of the patients.
* When stimuli were presented to the left visual field, which is processed by the right hemisphere, patients say ‘I saw nothing’ but could draw the object with their left hand.
* When stimuli were presented to the right visual field, which is processed by the left hemisphere, patients were able to say what they had seen but couldn’t draw the object with their right hand.

What was the only **anomaly** in Sperry and Gazzaniga's (1967) study?

**Facial Recognition:** When a face was shown to the right visual field, they could recognise it was a face but not the age, race, gender becuase **facial recognition is in the right hemisphere**