Lecture 2

Nature vs. Nurture

A debate in developmental science discussing the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.

Sigmund Freud

A pioneering psychologist known for his theories on the unconscious mind and the development of personality through stages.

Id, Ego, Super Ego

are three parts of your personality according to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

Erik Erikson

A developmental psychologist who proposed a theory of psychosocial development (General Learning) consisting of eight stages from infancy to adulthood.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

B.F. Skinner's theory

Social Learning Theory

A theory by Albert Bandura

that emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Constructivist Theories

Definition: Theories that view learning as an active process where learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge.

Jean Piaget

Definition: A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, proposing that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate their world through distinct stages.

sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)

preoperational (2 to 7 years)

concrete operational (7 to 11 years)

formal operational (12 years and up) stages

Lev Vygotsky

Definition: A Soviet psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory, emphasizing the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development, particularly through concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development.

Ethology:

Definition: The scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait.

Evolutionary Psychology

Definition: A theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection.

The id

is the most primal part, driven by instinctual desires for immediate gratification.

The superego

represents internalized moral standards and ideals from parents and society.

The ego

acts as the mediator between the two, balancing the id's impulses with reality and the superego's moral restrictions. 

Tinbergen

Developed Ethology’s 4 areas of inquiry

These four levels are necessary and complimentary for explaining behavior

1. Immediate (Causation) – social and neuro-psychology

2. Ontogenetic (Developmental)

3. Functional (Evolution)

4. Phylogenetic (Historical) – cultural and evolutionary

Lorenz

–  Pioneered studies of genetically programmed behavior (instinct)

–  Concept of imprinting

–  Coded animal behaviors, emotions, and displays (On Aggression)

Ethology

focuses on studying species-typical behaviors

initially focused on fixed action behaviors

These behaviors are highly reliable (do not change) from one instance to another, and are typically triggered by signal stimuli

Many human facial expressions are species-specific behaviors

Ethology: Historical Perspectives

Konra Lorenz

Niko Tinbergen

General Theory

is about psychosocial development, which states that an individual's personality is shaped by successfully navigating a series of eight developmental stages throughout their life.

sequential, but they do not build directly from previous stages so it is possible to pass on to a new stage even if a current stage is poorly resolved and you can return to a stage at a later date if needed to complete/repair the stage.

General Theory stages

Trust – Mistrust (0-1)

Autonomy – Shame (2-3)

Initiative – Guilt (4-5)

Industry – Inferiority (6-13)

Identity – Identity Diffusion (Adolescence)

Intimacy – Isolation (Young Adults)

Generativity – Stagnation (Adult)

Integrity – Despair (Old Age)

Trust – Mistrust (0-1)

•   During this stage, the infant learns whether or not they can rely on another human being(s), typically the mother

•   If the mother is responsive, the child learns to trust

•   If the mother is unresponsive, the child learns not to trust in others

Autonomy – Shame (2-3)

•   The child learns that whether or not they can act independently from others

•   If parents are firm but supportive, the child learns that they can initiate their own behaviors

•   If the parents are too strict, or too lenient, the child learns that they can’t initiate behavior or that it doesn’t matter

Initiative – Guilt (4-5)

•   Having developed a sense (good or bad) of initiative, the child learns whether or not they are capable of doing things on their own

•   If the child learns that they can succeed, they develop initiative (role-models)

•   If they fail, they develop guilt

Industry – Inferiority (6-13)

•   The child learns whether their work is competent compared to other children

•   If they succeed in school, sports, art, etc. they develop a sense of industry in that area (i.e., work pays off)

•   If they fail relative to peers, they develop a sense of inferiority

Identity – Identity Diffusion (Adolescence)

•   During this stage, the individual either successfully develops an identity, or fails to do so

•   A teenager needs to a) explore identities and then b) commit to an identity to succeed in this stage

•   Failure to do so results in stagnation, confusion, or settling for the wrong ID

Intimacy – Isolation (Young Adults)

•   The young adult learns whether they can share their life with another(s) or whether they are alone

•   To succeed, they need to be able to open themselves up to others- typically a partner, but can be close friends

•   If they fail to open themselves to another, they fail this stage

Generativity – Stagnation (Adult)

•   The adult learns whether they are contributing anything meaningful, or whether their life lacks meaning

•   If they feel like they are contributing to the world, they pass the stage

•   If they feel like their life’s work (parent, job, spouse) is meaningless, they fail the stage

Integrity – Despair (Old Age)

•   The individual learns whether or not they can accept their life as being generally positive

•   If they can, they belief their life had meaning, purpose, and mistakes were unfortunate but accepted

•   If they can’t, they feel like their life has been wasted or missed out

(Bio)Ecological Theory

essentially says that a child is the combination of themselves, their inner being, and how they interact with everything in their environment

Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory

An Ecological Approach that use a model to describes development as a complex interplay between an individual's biological characteristics and five environmental systems

Bronfenbrenner's 5 systems

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

The Microsystem

People and objects in the immediate environment

The Mesosystem

–  Influences of Microsystems on each other

The Exosystem

–  Social, environmental, and governmental forces that indirectly influence the individual

The Macrosystem

–  Subcultures and cultures in which the other three systems are imbedded

 The Chronosystem

–  How these individuals, systems, and the relationships between the two change over time

–  Ethology