Lecture 2

Emphasis on scientific evidence in child development.
Students to participate in debates based on three articles (two provided, one sourced independently).
Expectation for students to learn how to research and validate claims.
- Students are permitted to express uncertainty in discussions and use previous reading to infer answers.
The importance of acknowledging the limitations of knowledge and being willing to seek out information.

Developmental psychology emphasizes the interaction of both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) in shaping individuals.
The focus tends to lean towards nurture due to its amendable nature within our control (e.g., educational methods).

Freud's model of personality is composed of the id, ego, and superego:
- Id: Represents base desires and urges.
  - Example: An impulsive behavior like jumping on an attractive individual without considering morality.
- Superego: Encompasses morality and ethical considerations, regulating behaviors against societal norms.
- Ego: Serves as the mediator between the id and superego, aiming for realistic solutions to conflicts.
Development proceeds through a series of psychosexual stages and focuses on internal psychodynamics.
- Conflicts faced during various stages significantly shape adult personality.
Freud's legacy includes acknowledging childhood experiences' impact on adult behavior.

Erikson expanded on Freud's concept by including social dimensions into the model of development.
- Stages are not strictly sequential; failure at one stage does not prevent future progression.
Major stages include:
- Trust vs. Mistrust: Importance of responsive caregiving in establishing trust.
- Autonomy vs. Shame: The development of independence through learning self-control.
- Initiative vs. Guilt: Learning to engage with peers and develop social skills.
- Industry vs. Inferiority: Reinforcement of effort leading to competence in activities.
- Identity vs. Role Confusion: The critical phase for adolescents to explore and commit to identities.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation: Development of healthy relationships post-adolescence.
- Generativity vs. Stagnation: Mid-life assessment focusing on productivity and contribution to society.
- Integrity vs. Despair: Reflection upon one’s life toward the end, assessing fulfillment.

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning:
- Behavior shapes through reinforcement (positive or negative).
- Example: Rewarding a child with candy for good behavior increases the likelihood of repeat behavior.
- Critique of behaviorist focus solely on observable behavior vs. mental processes.

Albert Bandura's Observational Learning:
- Learning occurs through observing and imitating others, integrating social contexts.
- Acknowledges the impact of context on behavior, diverging from strict behaviorism.

Proposed children progress through several cognitive development stages, learning through interactions with their environment.
- Stages include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

Vygotsky emphasized social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development.
- Introduced concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), recognizing the role of a generative social environment in learning.

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model:
- Child development results from person-environment interactions at multiple systemic levels:
  - Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (family, school).
  - Mesosystem: Interconnections among microsystems.
  - Exosystem: Indirect influences (community services, parental jobs).
  - Macrosystem: Broad societal influences (culture, laws).
  - Chronosystem: Changes over time in the various systems.

Evolutionary Psychology:
- Studies instinctual behaviors as biological processes. Key figures include Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen.
- Focus on species-typical behaviors and innate mechanisms such as imprinting.
- The theory critiques strict behaviorism, advocating for biological perspectives in understanding behavior and development.