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Recent example of a trade embargo
After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the EU imposed an arms embargo
The sanctions prohibited any involvement in the supply of arms and services to Russian military
It also included technology which might contribute to Russia’s military
These sanctions aim to encourage Russia to cease actions against Ukraine, which are threatening the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Ukraine
Recent example of developmental aid being given
2022 UK announced 3 year package of £100 million ODA
Designed to support the most vulnerable parts of the Ukrainian economy and reduce Ukraine’s reliance on gas imports
Ukraine is heavily reliant on energy imports such as coal and gas, which Russia exploits
ODA funds have also been directed to those countries taking in large amounts of Ukrainian refugees eg. Moldova
Recent example of military aid
The U.S. announced several rounds of military aid to Ukraine since Russia's invasion in 2022
One aid package, worth $775 million, includes additional advanced rocket systems, artillery systems and ammunition, drones, vehicles, and anti-armour weapons
The military aid aims to help Ukraine defend itself over the long term
Example of indirect military action
For example, in 2017, British army personnel trained Nigerian forces to help them improve the country’s security and fight the Islamist militant group, Boko Haram
Example of direct military action
For example, in 2003, the USA and UK were among a coalition of countries who sent troops and carried out airstrikes in Iraq against the government of Saddam Hussein
Ways in which IGOs try to protect human rights
putting conditions on aid or withholding aid
Imposing trade embargoes
Expressing disapproval of human rights abuses
Ways in which NGOs try to protect human rights
Monitoring the status of human rights globally
Campaigning for the protection of human rights
Petitioning and lobbying of authoritarian governments e.g. to free protestors imprisoned unfairly
Encouraging IGOs and governments to intervene in human rights abuses
Examples of human rights NGOs
Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
Reasons why it is hard to come to an agreement when it comes to intervention
The organisations or countries involved have different aims e.g. increasing global influence or protecting human rights
The superpower countries could be seeking to assist and control less-powerful countries for political and economic purposes
The UN has no military force, relying on member states to provide and fund it
The intervention could be for the intervening country’s self-interest e.g. oil reserves
The risks the intervention could lead to a wider conflict
Cutting off development aid can reduce a country’s ability to support its citizens’ basic needs
Military action can lead to the injury or death of civilians
What is the “responsibility to protect” or “R2P”?
UN resolution in 2005 endorsed by all member states
Each individual states has the responsibility to protect their population from
genocide
war crimes
ethnic cleansing
human rights violations
If they fail the responsibility falls to the international government
debate between national sovereignty and R2P
Libya case study
North Africa
10th largest oil reserve
Violations
Protesters against Gaddafi’s government corruption and against economic stagnation were repressed
hundreds of people killed
Intervention
UN authorized bombing raids by the UK and France
In support of civilians and rebels
National sovereignty concerns
5 countries were concerned about inefficient evidence for intervention
AND about the intervening countries own HR inconsistencies
It is also claimed that the UK intervened to gain more access to oil reserves
Outcome
Gaddafi was killed in 2011
rebel groups are in conflict with new government and others
government is too unstable to hold elections
what % of ODA given is bilateral?
72%
What is bilateral aid?
When one government gives directly to another country (either projects or the government itself)
2022 UK announced £100 million ODA over 3 years to Ukraine (UK gov is giving to Ukraine not a charity)
Governments prefer bi-lateral aid as they can control its spending and which countries receive it
Some people call it tied aid because it can often come with conditions on using it
What is multilateral aid?
governments give their money to organisations, such as NGOs
fairer as NGOs do no have political self-interest
In 2022 how much money did the World Bank loan to poorer countries?
$37.7 billion USD
Concerns over loans
The economic influence the World Bank has over the recipient countries due to the conditions stated in the loans
The prioritising of economic development over environmental protection e.g. deforestation
Human rights abuses, such as the displacement of indigenous people
Aid case study Haiti
Background
Experiences natural disasters eg Earthquakes and hurricanes
have up to 10,000 NGOs working there at any one time
One of the poorest countries in the world
Extremely corrupt
The Need
2010 earthquake - 220,000 deaths
1.5 million people became homeless (had to live in emergency tents)
Cholera outbreak in the tent cities causing 9,000 deaths
The Aid
Within months £12 billion was raised by govs, NGOs, IGOs and members of public
Used in a number of ways eg, provide emergency shelters and restore access to clean water
Concerns
2 years later 500,000 people still living in temporary shelters
Aid given with the condition of using it within 18 months
only 40% was used after 18 months
government and NGOs were unable to co-ordinate and use the money effectively
Dependency on aid has increased eg 70% of healthcare and 85% of schooling relies on the funding from international aid
Majority of emergency aid money does not reach haitians as most of the money is going into rebuilding US companies in the area only 1% went to haitian businesses
It is thought that a lot of money was spent on salaries and accommodation of NGO workers many of whom were not from Haiti
Development Aid Malaria case study
Malaria is preventable with
Providing free mosquito nets
Taking anti-malarial drugs
Improved diagnosis
Due to international aid programmes (e.g. Nets for Life), the global death rate from malaria fell by 25% between 2000 and 2020, preventing 6.2 million deaths
Nets for life provided 30 million nets
The UN has championed the gender equality issue for nearly 50 years, resulting in…
45% of bilateral aid specifically funding programmes targeted at gender equality
concerns over development aid
Loans are now not recommended because:
Of the increasing size of debts
Technical assistance and skills training are more preferable
Developing countries can become aid dependent
Haiti dependency on aid has increased eg 70% of healthcare and 85% of schooling relies on the funding from international aid
easier for governments to rely on aid money, rather than helping local industries and systems to develop
At risk if aid suddenly stops
Aid is sometimes used by the political elite to ensure they remain in power and repress citizens (building a powerful army, buying votes)
Corruption
Oil in the Niger Delta
diverse ecosystems, including mangrove forests, freshwater swamps and tropical rainforest
31 million people and 40 different ethnic groups,
Ogoni people, who believe the land and rivers are sacred
Vast oil supply - 7th larges exporter of oil
wealthiest country in Africa
Nigerian government earns £10 billion in oil
Oil been exploited since the 1950’s
Damage to Environment
40 million litres of oil are spilled every year across the Niger Delta
Mangrove forests and rainforests are regularly damaged
greatly affecting fish populations
Oil spills pollute groundwater, surface water and soil
Minority groups suffer
70% of people live on less than $2 per day in the Niger Delta
Access to clean and safe drinking water is limited due to oil spills
Fishing and agriculture affected by spills affecting incomes and traditions
Human rights abuses
Conflict over oil lead to HR abuses
During the 1990s, the Nigerian military government repeatedly violated the Ogoni tribe’s human rights
Around 1,000 Ogonis were killed
30,000 people were made homeless as villages were burnt down
Land Grabbing in Kenya
Land grabbing in Kenya became popular in the 1980s amongst its political elite, to use as a resource for bribes
Important government officials still continue this practice of land grabbing
The land is used for cash crops for export, biofuel crops and the production of renewable energy
85% of Kenya’s population relies on agriculture for its livelihood, so land grabbing puts huge pressure on the land and creates tensions between different ethnic groups
Land grabs increase the chance of food insecurity and puts Kenya’s population at risk
NATO intervention in Bosnia
In 1995, an attack on Bosnian Muslims by Bosnian Serbs led to 8,000 deaths
This led to a NATO operation, involving an air and bombing campaign against the Bosnian Serbs
There was a strong human rights justification (genocide, torture), which led to war crimes arrests among Bosnian Serb military leaders
Radovan Karadžić, the former Bosnian Serb leader, was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity by an international criminal tribunal
2000 UK intervention in Sierra Leone
viewed as successful after it helped bring an end to the civil war
British soldiers helped disarm the rebel group trying to overthrow the government
They trained the Sierra Leone Army
A ceasefire was agreed and upheld
Pros and Cons of Military aid
Pros
A strong military could help enforce human rights within a nation
Attaching conditions to the aid may force recipient countries to stop human rights abuses
Stopping aid could threaten national interests, such as access to valuable resources
Cons
Further human rights abuses may be committed using the weapons provided
Supporting a government that represses its people undermines the main principle of human rights
Ignoring human rights violations condones it
