Hist 2456 Midterm 1 Terms & Themes

What is Eastern Europe often characterized by in modern history?

Shifting borders, diverse identities, and political complexity.

What is an Empire in the context of European history?

A large multi-ethnic political unit, dominant until WWI, later dissolved into nation-states.

What is a Continental Empire?

A land-based empire spanning Europe, the Middle East, and Eurasia (e.g., Habsburg, Russian, Ottoman).

What is a Nation State?

A political unit tied to a dominant national identity, rising after WWI but often still containing minorities.

What is a Metropole?

The imperial “center” controlling and exploiting colonies or peripheries.

What is a Rump State?

A drastically reduced remnant of a formerly larger state (e.g., postwar Austria).

What is Revanchism?

A drive to recover lost territory, especially strong in Hungary after Trianon.

What is National-personal autonomy?

A proposal for ethnic groups to self-govern without redrawing state borders.

What is a National Minority?

A group in a nation-state not belonging to the dominant nation, often left without full rights.

Why was the German Empire’s 1871 unification significant for Europe?

It created a powerful centralized state, disrupted the balance of power, and reduced Habsburg influence.

What defined the Habsburg (Austro-Hungarian) Empire before its collapse?

A multilingual Central/Eastern European monarchy, weakened by nationalism and dissolved after WWI.

Why was the Russian Empire’s collapse important in WWI?

It triggered revolution, the rise of the Soviet Union, and new states like Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.

What was the Ottoman Empire’s status before its collapse?

The “sick man of Europe,” dismantled after WWI, replaced by Turkey and League mandates.

What role did the Prussian Empire play in German unification?

Its military and leadership drove the 1871 unification, cementing Prussia as Germany’s core.

What was the Eastern Question in 19th–20th century diplomacy?

How Great Powers managed the Ottoman Empire’s decline and Balkan independence.

What was the German Question in 19th–20th century diplomacy?

How Germany’s unification and expansion ambitions disrupted European stability.

What was the Jewish Question in European politics?

Debates over Jewish status — homeland (Zionism), migration, and violence (pogroms).

What was the Pale of Settlement?

A restricted zone in the Russian Empire confining Jews, holding two-thirds of the world’s Jewish population.

What were pogroms in Eastern Europe?

Violent antii-Jewish riots, often tolerated or encouraged by authorities.

Why was Yiddish politically significant in interwar Poland?

It symbolized Jewish cultural autonomy, competing with Hebrew and Polish for identity.

What was the Bund’s political stance in Poland?

A Jewish socialist party promoting cultural autonomy and integration, not a separate state.

What did Agudas Israel advocate?

A religious Jewish party defending rights and autonomy, rejecting secular Zionism.

What did Zionists in Poland argue for?

Jewish national self-determination and the creation of a homeland, linking Poland to global Zionism.

What was the Polish Question in WWI diplomacy?

The debate over Poland’s independence, used to weaken Russia and central to Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

What was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth?

A major state (1569) run as a noble republic, later evoked by Piłsudski for federalist state-building.

What happened in the Partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795?

Poland was divided by neighbors until it ceased to exist as a state.

Why was the Unification of Germany in 1871 significant for Poland?

It reduced Habsburg influence in German regions and shifted power balances affecting Polish lands.

Who was Roman Dmowski and what did he promote?

Leader of National Democracy, pushing for a Polish nation-state dominated by ethnic Poles.

Who was Józef Piłsudski and what was his vision?

Polish leader advocating federalism, later seized power in 1926, founding the authoritarian Sanacja regime.

Why was the Danzig Free City created after WWI?

To give Poland sea access under League oversight, but it remained contested with Germany.

What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) and why was it important for Poland?

Russia quit WWI, ceding lands to Germany/Austria-Hungary; later annulled, shaping Poland’s borders.

What was the Polish-Bolshevik War (1919–1921)?

A border war between Poland and Soviet Russia, ending with the Treaty of Riga

What did the Treaty of Riga (1921) establish?

Poland’s eastern border, leaving large non-Polish minorities inside Poland.

Who was Gabriel Narutowicz and why is his death significant?

Poland’s first president, assassinated in 1922 by a right-wing extremist, showing political instability.

What was the May 1926 Coup d’État?

Piłsudski’s restrained coup, returning him to power and beginning authoritarian rule.

What was the Sanacja regime?

Piłsudski’s authoritarian system aimed at “healing” politics but suppressing freedoms and minorities.

How did Greece exemplify Balkan nationalism?

It gained independence from imperial rule in the 19th century, inspiring other Balkan movements.

When did Serbia gain independence and why is it significant?

In 1878 (Congress of Berlin); its cross-border Serb claims fueled tensions with Austria-Hungary.

How did Bulgaria’s status change from 1878 to 1908?

Gained autonomy at Berlin Congress, then declared full independence in 1908.

When was Montenegro recognized as independent and why is it notable?

1878 (Berlin Congress); symbol of small Balkan states carving freedom from empires.

How did Romania expand after WWI?

It gained Transylvania and other lands from Austria-Hungary and Russia, fulfilling 1916 Allied promises.

What was Bosnia-Herzegovina’s role in rising tensions?

Occupied in 1878, annexed in 1908 by Austria-Hungary, but claimed by Serbia as Serb territory.

Who was Archduke Franz Ferdinand and why is he central to WWI?

His assassination in Sarajevo (1914) triggered WWI.

Why was Sarajevo symbolically chosen for the assassination?

It represented Serbian nationalist claims against Austria-Hungary.

Why was St. Vitus Day significant in 1914?

The assassination date linked to Serbia’s memory of the 1389 Kosovo battle.

What dynastic rivalries shaped Serbian politics?

Obrenović and Karađorđević dynasties competed for dominance.

What was the Black Hand’s role in WWI?

A secret Serbian society seeking South Slav unification, tied to Franz Ferdinand’s assassination.

What was the White Hand in contrast to the Black Hand?

A Serbian nationalist group working within the army and monarchy to consolidate power.

Who was Nikola Pašić and what was his vision?

Serbian Radical Party leader, advocating territorial expansion into Bosnia.

What did the Serbian Radical Party stand for?

Nationalist, expansionist goals under Pašić’s leadership.

Who was Gavrilo Princip and why is he remembered?

The assassin of Franz Ferdinand, committed to South Slav unification.

What caused the Crimean War (1853–1856)?

Russian pressure on the Ottoman Empire, framed as protecting Christians but tied to balance-of-power struggles.

What was the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and why was it important?

A Russian victory over the Ottomans that reshaped the Balkans and set the stage for the Congress of Berlin.

What did the Congress of Berlin (1878) achieve?

It granted independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, while keeping Bulgaria under Ottoman oversight.

What was the First Balkan War (1912)?

A coalition of Balkan states defeated the Ottomans, ending most Ottoman control in Europe.

Why was the Battle of Amiens (1918) significant?

It marked the beginning of Germany’s military collapse in WWI.

What was the Armistice of November 11, 1918?

The ceasefire that ended fighting on the Western Front, though conflict continued in Eastern Europe.

What did the Treaty of Versailles (1919) impose on Germany?

Harsh territorial, military, and economic restrictions, fueling long-term resentment.

What did the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) do to Austria?

It dissolved Austria-Hungary, reduced Austria to a small rump state, and banned union with Germany.

How did the Treaty of Trianon (1920) reshape Hungary?

It cut two-thirds of its territory and population, creating deep resentment.

What was the Treaty of Sèvres (1920)?

It dismantled the Ottoman Empire, replaced later by the Treaty of Lausanne.

What did the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) establish?

Modern Turkey’s sovereignty and borders, marking the Ottoman Empire’s final end.

What was the Treaty of Neuilly (1919) and who did it affect?

It forced Bulgaria to cede land, pay reparations, and limit its army, weakening its regional role.

Who were the Bolsheviks and why are they central to 1917?

Lenin’s revolutionary socialist faction that seized power, establishing communist rule in Russia.

What defines Marxists in this period?

emphasizes class struggle; Bolsheviks drew on ideas about imperialism and self-determination.

What was the February Revolution (March 1917, Gregorian calendar)?

A popular uprising that overthrew the Russian monarchy and created a provisional government.

What was the October Revolution (November 1917, Gregorian calendar)?

The Bolshevik-led overthrow of the provisional government, establishing Soviet rule.

Who was Vladimir Lenin and what was his vision of WWI?

Leader of the Bolsheviks, who saw WWI as the collapse of imperialism and called for global socialist revolution.

Who was Leon Trotsky and why is he important?

Bolshevik leader who organized the Red Army and shaped Soviet revolutionary policy.

Who was Béla Kun and what did he attempt in 1919?

Leader of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic, a communist experiment crushed within months.

What was the Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)?

A 133-day communist regime in Hungary, overthrown by Romanian and Slovak forces.

Who was Miklós Horthy and what role did he play in Hungary?

Regent of Hungary from 1920, rising after the fall of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.

What was the Ukrainian People’s Republic (1917–1918)?

A short-lived independent state born from Russia’s collapse, contested by neighbors.

How did Ukraine feature in the post-WWI settlement?

Briefly independent with Central Powers’ backing, later divided, and part of the Jewish Pale of Settlement.

How did Lithuania emerge after WWI?

As a new Baltic state, entangled in border disputes with Poland over former Commonwealth lands.

What was Latvia’s status after WWI?

A Baltic state carved from Russian territory, involved in postwar land struggles.

What was Estonia’s fate after WWI?

Another Baltic state from ex-Russian lands, facing territorial disputes in the postwar period.

How was Czechoslovakia created in 1918?

From Austrian and Hungarian lands, with Czechs dominant but large German, Slovak, and other minorities.

Why was the Sudetenland important within Czechoslovakia?

A region with 3 million Germans and key industries, later targeted by Nazi Germany.

Who were the Sudeten Germans and what did they demand?

German minority in Czechoslovakia pressing for greater rights and ties to Germany.

Why was the Škoda Arms Factory significant?

A major defense-industrial site in the Sudetenland, central to Czechoslovakia’s economy and security.

What was the Petka coalition in Czechoslovakia?

A bloc of five Czech parties that stabilized interwar democracy through power-sharing.

How did Romania gain Transylvania after WWI?

Promised in 1916 to secure its entry into WWI, annexed from Austria-Hungary after the war.

What was the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes?

A state created from Austria-Hungary’s collapse in 1918, renamed in 1929.

How did the Great Depression affect Central Europe?

It destabilized democracy and fueled extremism in the 1930s.

What was the German National Front in Czechoslovakia?

A pro-Nazi party that won 62% of Sudeten German votes in 1935, becoming the largest party in the state.

What was the Anschluss (1938)?

Hitler’s annexation of Austria, banned by Saint-Germain but achieved by force.

What was decided at the Munich Conference (1938)?

Britain, France, and Italy ceded Sudetenland to Germany without Czechoslovakia’s input, a symbol of appeasement.

What was appeasement in the 1930s?

A policy of conceding to aggressors to avoid war, exemplified by the Munich Agreement.

What was the Little Entente?

A 1920s–30s alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia against Hungarian revisionism and Habsburg restoration, backed by France.

What was the Corfu Declaration (1917)?

An agreement promising a unified South Slav state under the Serbian monarchy, groundwork for Yugoslavia.

Who was Svetozar Pribićević?

A Croatian Serb politician who first supported unification with Serbia, later opposed centralization in Yugoslavia.

Who was Stjepan Radić?

Croatian Peasant Party leader pushing for Croatian autonomy, assassinated in 1928, deepening Yugoslav tensions.

What was the Ustaša movement?

A Croatian fascist and ultranationalist group (founded 1929) advocating violent independence from Yugoslavia, allied with Italy and Germany.

Who was Ante Pavelić?

Leader of the Ustaša, ruling Axis-aligned Croatia in WWII and overseeing persecution of Serbs, Jews, and Roma.

What was the League of Nations meant to do after WWI?

Maintain peace, oversee mandates, and resolve disputes — but proved weak in enforcement.

What were the Minority Treaties tied to post-WWI settlements?

Agreements obligating new states to protect minorities, often poorly enforced in practice.

Who was Franz Josef I and why is his reign important?

Long-reigning Austro-Hungarian emperor whose empire’s Balkan entanglements set the stage for WWI.

Who was Woodrow Wilson in the context of WWI?

U.S. president who framed WWI as a fight for democracy and inspired postwar self-determination.

What were Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918)?

Principles advocating national self-determination, an independent Poland, and the breakup of empires.