perception unit ap psychology 2025

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

perceptual sets

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect

the ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others (hearing your name in a noisy room)

change blindness

the failure to notice large changes in an environment

retinal disparity

the binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing the images in the two eyes, the brain computes distance— the greater the disparity, the closer the object

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance enabled by the brain combining retinal images

monocular depth cues

depth cues such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession (resulting in the perception of a single moving light)

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category matching new items into a schema provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in 1 particular way, often a way that has succeeded in the past

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions

functional fixedness

when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures of predicts what it is supposed to

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance

fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed