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Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
Association
The process by which two events or stimuli become linked together in the mind, often through repeated exposure.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, showing that learning has occurred.
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events or stimuli occur together, including classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Stimulus
Any event or object that can trigger a sensory response.
Cognitive Learning
Learning that involves mental processes like attention, memory, and reasoning, beyond simple behavioral responses.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, leading to a learned response.
Behaviorism
A theory of learning based on the idea that behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response but becomes a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A form of conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
Extinction
The process by which a conditioned response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.
Generalization
The tendency to respond in a similar way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, like rewards and punishments.
Law of Effect
The principle that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
A controlled environment used to study animal behavior and operant conditioning.
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Shaping
The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Discriminative Stimulus
A stimulus that signals the likelihood that a behavior will be reinforced or punished.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a rewarding stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
Primary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that satisfy basic biological needs.
Conditioned Reinforcers
Stimuli that become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement Schedules
The rules that determine how often a behavior will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the behavior every time it occurs.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a random number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed.
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Negative Punishment
Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Biofeedback
A technique where people learn to control physiological processes through real-time monitoring.
Operant Behavior
Behavior that is influenced by the consequences that follow it.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not immediately apparent or demonstrated until a later time.
Insight
A sudden realization or understanding of a problem's solution.
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in a behavior because it is inherently enjoyable.
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in a behavior for external rewards or to avoid punishment.
Coping
The process of dealing with stress or difficult situations.
Problem-Focused Coping
Addressing the problem directly to reduce or eliminate stress.
Emotion-Focused Coping
Managing emotional reactions to stress rather than addressing the problem itself.
Learned Helplessness
A state where individuals believe they have no control over their environment.
External Locus of Control
The belief that external factors control one's destiny.
Internal Locus of Control
The belief that one has control over their own fate and actions.
Self-Control
The ability to control one's emotions, behaviors, and desires.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a behavior.
Vicarious Punishment
Learning by observing someone else being punished for a behavior.
Vicarious Reinforcement
Learning by observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else perform the same action.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, helpful behavior that benefits others.
Antisocial Effects
Negative behaviors that can be learned or modeled, such as aggression or selfishness.
