Unit 4 Learning

• Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

• Association: The process by which two events or stimuli become linked together in the mind, often through repeated exposure.

• Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, showing that learning has occurred.

• Associative Learning: Learning that certain events or stimuli occur together. It includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

• Stimulus: Any event or object that can trigger a sensory response.

• Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves mental processes like attention, memory, and reasoning, beyond simple behavioral responses.

• Classical Conditioning: A learning process where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, leading to a learned response (e.g., Pavlov's dogs salivating to a bell).

• Behaviorism: A theory of learning based on the idea that behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response but, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food causing salivation).

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to the sound of a bell).

• Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

• Higher-Order Conditioning: A form of conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

• Extinction: The process by which a conditioned response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

• Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.

Module 27: Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

• Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (usually linked to classical conditioning).

• Operant Conditioning: A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, like rewards and punishments.

• Law of Effect: The principle that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unsatisfying consequences are less likely to recur (Edward Thorndike).

• Operant Chamber: Also known as a Skinner Box, it's a controlled environment used to study animal behavior and operant conditioning.

• Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Shaping: The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

• Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the likelihood that a behavior will be reinforced or punished.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a rewarding stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., turning off loud noise when a rat presses a lever).

• Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that satisfy basic biological needs (e.g., food, water, sleep).

• Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

• Reinforcement Schedules: The rules that determine how often a behavior will be reinforced.

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior every time it occurs.

  • Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, leading to slower extinction.

• Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses (e.g., a reward every 10th response).

• Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a random number of responses (e.g., gambling).

• Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., paycheck every two weeks).

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving extra chores as punishment).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a phone).

Module 28: Biofeedback and Behavior

• Biofeedback: A technique where people learn to control physiological processes (e.g., heart rate, muscle tension) through real-time monitoring.

• Respondent Behavior: See above—it's behavior that occurs automatically due to a stimulus, usually linked to classical conditioning.

• Operant Behavior: Behavior that is influenced by the consequences that follow it, central to operant conditioning.

Module 29: Cognitive and Motivational Aspects

• Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of an environment, often used in navigation.

• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately apparent or demonstrated until a later time.

• Insight: A sudden realization or understanding of a problem's solution.

• Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to engage in a behavior because it is inherently enjoyable or satisfying.

• Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to engage in a behavior for external rewards or to avoid punishment.

• Coping: The process of dealing with stress or difficult situations.

  • Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing the problem directly to reduce or eliminate stress.

  • Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional reactions to stress rather than addressing the problem itself.

• Learned Helplessness: A state where individuals believe they have no control over their environment and fail to take action, often due to repeated failure.

• External Locus of Control: The belief that external factors (e.g., fate, luck) control one's destiny.

• Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one has control over their own fate and actions.

• Self-Control: The ability to control one's emotions, behaviors, and desires in the face of external demands.

Module 30: Observational Learning

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.

• Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a behavior.

• Vicarious Punishment: Learning by observing someone else being punished for a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior in the observer.

• Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning by observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the observer.

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else perform the same action.

• Prosocial Behavior: Positive, helpful behavior that benefits others.

• Antisocial Effects: Negative behaviors that can be learned or modeled, such as aggression or selfishness.