Customer Exam

What is memory?

Memory refers to the process through which information is acquired, stored, retained, and later retrieved.

What are the three types of memory?

1. Sensory Memory

2. Short-term (Working/Workbench) Memory

3. Long-term Memory

What is Sensory Memory?

The ability to temporarily store information that comes through our five senses

• Retained only briefly, 1/4 sec. – 2 sec.

What is Short-Term Memory?

The active processing (encoding) of incoming information from our five senses and of information retrieved from long-term memory

• Limited capacity (5 – 9 items)

• Short-lived duration (15-30 sec.)

What is Long-Term Memory?

• The part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use.

• Includes Explicit and Implicit

Explicit Memories

• known as declarative memories include memories that are available in consciousness

• include episodic and semantic

Episodic vs Semantic

Episodic: Something you remember (involves recalling personal experiences)

Semantic: Something that you know (involves knowing facts)

Implicit Memories

• include memories that are mostly unconscious

• include procedural memory

Procedural Memory

Memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment (e.g., how to drive a car or ride a bike).

What influences retrieval of knowledge in long term memory?

1. Context-Dependent Effects

2. State-Dependent Effects

3. Serial-Position Effects

Context-Dependent Effects

Context-dependent effects refer to a phenomenon where the context in which information was learned enhances the recall of that information.

Exp. Open the fridge, but forget what you want → Go back to the place where the thought about that food occurred → Found it!

State-Dependent Effects

The recall of information is enabled when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

Serial-Position Effects

The tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best and the middle items worst.

Model of the Motivation Process

Unfulfilled Needs (Wants, Desires) → Tension → Drive → (Personality Perception Learning Attitudes) → Behavior → Goal (Need Fulfillment) → Tension Reduction

Need

A need arises from an imbalance between one's current physical or psychological condition and an ideal/desired physical or psychological state.

Physiological Needs

Basic biological necessities required for human survival.

• Innate (we are born with these needs).

• Also called “biogenic needs.”

What are the 5 elements you need to have in order to survive?

1. Oxygen

2. Food

3. Water

4. Shelter

5. Sleep

Why is sleep a basic need?

Sleep has historically been underestimated in terms of how important it is. There is even a “sleep stigma” where sleep is equated to laziness.

• only recently been considered a basic need.

• 7 to 8 hours per night is the recommended amount for an average person.

Different Types of Psychological Needs

1. Need for Belonging

2. Need for Uniqueness

3. Need for Control

4. Utilitarian vs. Hedonic Needs

Need for Belonging

A person’s need to establish, maintain, or restore a positive affective relationship with another person or persons.

• Related terms: Need for affiliation, social connectedness.

Need for Uniqueness

The need to differentiate from others and to assert one’s individual identity.

Need for Control

The need to feel a sense of personal mastery over the environment.

• Often, the reason why consumers are resistant to new

  product innovations.

Utilitarian Needs

Concerned with functional or practical benefits of consumption (the purpose).

• e.g., functionality, durability, reasonable price.

Hedonic Needs

Concerned with the experiential and emotional benefits of consumption (the pleasure).

• e.g., aesthetic appeal, taste, entertainment value.

How are attitudes formed?

1. Exposure Effects on Affect & Cognition

   1. Mere Exposure Effect

   2. Truth Effect

2. Conditioning

   1. Classical

   2. Operant

3. Consistency Theories

   1. Cognitive Dissonance

   2. Self-perception theory

Mere Exposure Effect

A psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

• Influence your affective response.

• Occur because of Perceptual Fluency (i.e., how easy it is to recognize a stimulus) leads to Attribution of Liking.

Truth Effect

A phenomenon where consumers believe a statement merely because it has been repeated a number of times.

• Influence your cognitive response.

• Occur because of Processing Fluency (i.e., how easy it is to understand and assign meaning to a stimulus) leads to Attribution of Truth.

Classical Conditioning

• Occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response (e.g., food vs. salivation) is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own (e.g., bell vs. salivation).

• This is a form of associative learning

• Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)

Operant Conditioning

• A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

• An individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence

• Most famously associated with BF Skinner

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-Ratio - Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses.

• Variable-Ratio - Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).

• Fixed-Interval - Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals.

• Variable-Interval - Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals.

What is “resistance to extinction”?

Resistance to extinction refers to how long a behavior continues to be displayed even after it is no longer being reinforced.

Which type of reinforcement schedule is the most resistant to extinction?

• Variable-ratio schedule

• This can help to explain addiction to gambling. Even as gamblers may not receive reinforcers (e.g., rewards) after many attempts, they remain hopeful that they will be reinforced soon.

Classical Conditioning

Associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus

Operant Conditioning

Associates voluntary action with a consequence.

Sometimes, attitudes are formed due to:

A desire to maintain consistency between our attitudes and our behavior.

Consistency Theories

• Cognitive Dissonance

• Self-Perception Theory

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort (psychological stress) experienced by a person who simultaneously holds two or more conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

Self-Perception Theory

A process in which people become aware of certain attitudes by observing their own behavior.

• Proposed by Daryl Bem in 1967

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

• Dual process theory that describes how attitudes CHANGE.

• Proposes two major routes to persuasion:

  • Central route

  • Peripheral route

Central Route (High Effort)

• The central route to persuasion consists of thoughtful consideration of the message's arguments (ideas, content).

• The consumer is an active participant in the process of persuasion

• The consumer must have:

  • Motivation to process the message

    • If the consumer does not care, they will not centrally process.

  • Ability to think about the message

    • If the consumer is distracted or has trouble understanding the message, they will lack the ability to do central processing.

PERIPHERAL ROUTE (Low Effort)

• The peripheral route to persuasion occurs when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message.

• The consumer is a passive participant in the process of persuasion.

• The consumer has:

  • LOW Motivation to process the message or

  • LOW Ability to think about the message.

• Relies on biases, heuristics, stereotypes, & schemas to make assessments.

  • EX: a listener may agree with a message because the source appears to be an expert or is attractive.

Central Processing

Involves carefully evaluating the MESSAGE

Peripheral Processing

Relies on cues OUTSIDE of the MESSAGE

6 Principles of Persuasion

1. Reciprocity

2. Commitment & Consistency

3. Social Proof

4. Scarcity

5. Authority

6. Liking 

Reciprocity

A social norm of responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions.

T or F: The obligation that reciprocity produces is different from liking.

True

True or False: Reciprocity creates less of a warm, fuzzy feeling and more of a feeling of DEBT, which the receiver wants to “pay back.”

True

What does the Independent Samples T-test allow researchers to do?

The Independent Samples T -test allows researchers to compare the mean

values of two independent groups and examine whether there is a

statistically significant difference between the mean values of these two groups.

What do we rely on to determine whether there is a statistically significant

difference between the means of the two independent groups?

P-Value

When is the difference between two group means considered statistically significant in an Independent Samples T-test?

When p < .05