Key Concepts for Sociology Exam 1 Preparation

Symbolic interactionism

A micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations. Language and symbolism are critical for human interactions.

Rational choice theory

Individuals behave purposely and seek to maximize their self-interest. Behavior is oriented toward higher values, habits, emotions, and self-interest.

Functionalism

The theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important functions to keep society running.

Marxism

The theory that history is propelled by struggles between capitalists and the proletariat (workers). Power includes brute force and ideology.

Independent variable

Is one that produces an effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

Affected by another variable.

Experiments

About testing theoretical and conceptual relationships. Participants assigned to different conditions that are identical - except for a manipulated variable.

Advantages of experiments

Can isolate causality, researcher can control variables and questions, high internal validity, can avoid social desirability bias with deception.

Disadvantages of experiments

Lab experiments differ from real world, field experiments are expensive and hard to do, low generalizability, deception is ethically murky.

Ethnography

Writing about people. Embeds among a group to take field notes, which eventually turn to data.

In-depth interviews

Advantages include highlighting meaning-making, learning about past events, and quicker than ethnography.

Survey research

Predetermined set of questions. These can be open-ended or closed questions.

Cross-sectional survey

Represents a group of people at one point in time.

Longitudinal survey

Follows a group of respondents over time.

Causation

A relationship in which one event or situation brings about another.

Correlation

The existence of a regular relationship between two sets of occurrences or variables.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings can be applied to larger populations.

Triangulation

Combining methods (e.g., surveys, ethnography) to enrich findings and check data.

Culture

A set of beliefs, traditions and practices.

Material culture

Everything that is a part of our constructed environment, such as books, fashion, and monuments.

Nonmaterial culture

Encompasses values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms.

Subcultures

A group that has values and norms that distinguish it from others within the same society.

Values

Moral beliefs.

Norms

How values tell us to act.

Cultural scripts

Modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal or natural; social constructions.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's culture or group is superior; the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own.

Cultural relativism

Judging a society by its own standards.

Consumerism

The value/idea that happiness and fulfillment can be achieved through material possessions.

The 'I'

A person's sense of agency, actions, and/or power.

The 'Me'

Part of you that others and your 'I' can perceive.

The generalized other

Generalized sense of what society expects.

The looking-glass self

Describes how people develop their sense of self based on how they think others see them.

Concerted cultivation

A parenting style where parents are actively involved in their children's lives to help them develop their talents and skills.

Accomplishing natural growth

A working-class parenting style where children are allowed to develop more naturally with less structured involvement from parents.

Total institution

An institution that controls the entire basics of day-to-day life. Controls eat, shower, sleep and play.

Socialization

The process of internalizing values and norms to function in society

Status

Position in society that comes with a set of expectations, a recognizable social recognition

Role

Behaviors expected of a specific status

Role conflict

The tension caused by demands of multiple roles clashing pertaining to different statuses

Role strain

One status that has roles conflicting within itself

Ascribed status

Involuntary / put onto us by other people, less likely to change

Achieved status

Something earned

Master status

Overrides all other status and effects other statuses you can possess

Dramaturgical Theory

Social life as essentially a theatrical performance, in which we are all actors on metaphorical stages, with roles, scripts, costumes, and sets

Expressions given

Behaviors and symbols that are given off purposely

Expressions given off

Things not done purposely

Impression management

The process of controlling how one is perceived by others

Breaching experiment

A method of having collaborators exhibit 'abnormal' or 'atypical' behaviors in social interactions in order to see how people would react

Labeling theory

Proposes that individuals subconsciously notice how others are labeling them, and their reactions to those labels over time forms the basis of their self-identity

Social cohesion

How people form social bonds, relate to each other, and get along on a day-to-day basis

Social deviance

Transgressing socially established norms

Informal social sanctions

Unspoken social rules, things we do to keep people in line

Formal social sanctions

Rules and Laws, official expressions of what the group thinks is right and wrong

Mechanical solidarity

A type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture

Organic solidarity

A type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences

Fatalistic suicide

Too much social regulation, life is very regulated and monotonous

Egoistic suicide

Caused by low integration

Anomic suicide

When a person feels disconnected: life without norms/ social regulation

Altruistic suicide

Suicide is caused by too much integration: feel meaningless without communal relation

Dyads

Most intimate group, codependent only survives if both members remain

Triads

Distinct because they have force as a group, not dependent on any one member

Small group

Members have to be present and interacting, face-to-face interaction, univocal, lack of formal arrangements, equality

Large group

Formal structure and status differentiation

Party

Parties are like small groups, but multifocal

Social network

A set of relations - a set of dyads - held together by ties between individuals

Social tie

A set of stories that explains our relationships to other people in the network

Weak ties

Not reinforced through mutual connections

Embeddedness

The degree to which ties are reinforced through indirect paths within a social network

Social capital

Information, knowledge of people or ideas, and connections that help individuals enter pre-existing networks or gain power from them

Structural holes

A gap between network clusters or two people that would benefit from having the gap close

Compartmentalizers

Individuals who maintain separate social circles

Tight-Knitters

Individuals who have closely connected social networks

Samplers

Individuals who engage with multiple social groups but do not deeply connect with any

Equality of opportunity

The idea that everyone should have the same chance to succeed

Equality of condition

Inequality is acceptable so long as people have equal starting points from which to pursue their goals

Equality of outcome

The idea that everyone should end up with the same results

Individual attributes approach

A perspective that focuses on personal characteristics as determinants of success

Income inequality

The unequal distribution of income within a population

Intergenerational mobility

The ability for individuals to move up or down the social ladder compared to their parents

Opportunity hoarding

The practice of monopolizing opportunities to benefit a particular group

Domination

The exercise of power over others

Exploitation

Taking unfair advantage of someone or something

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)

A refundable tax credit for low to moderate-income working individuals and couples

Politics of protection

Policies aimed at safeguarding certain groups or interests

Politics of care

Policies focused on the welfare and support of individuals and communities