U4a Vocab: Social Psychology`

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior)

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. It generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its membersthat results from prejudice and often leads to exclusion or unfair treatment.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve what they get.

social identity

the “we’ aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?’ that comes from our group memberships

ingroup

“us” — people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

“them“ — those perceived as different or apart from our ingroups

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than the faces of other rases. Also called cross-race effect and the own--race bias.

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing actions.

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

norms

a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations

conformity

adjusting out behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

obedience

complying with an order or command.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration — the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal — creates anger, which can generate aggression.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those whom our lives are intertwined

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare for others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often help by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

personality psychology

the scientific study of personality and its development, structure, traits, processes, variations, and disordered forms (personality disorders)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

informational social influence

 influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others opinions about reality

normative social influence

the influence of other people's actions or opinions on an individual to fit in or be accepted by a group.

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms

loose culture

A social framework in which individuals are less constrained by social norms, promoting greater personal freedom and individual expression.

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

situational attribution

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting their situation

dispositional attribution

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting the person’s stable, enduring traits