4 Learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviourism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

respondent behaviour

behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

operant behaviour

behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviours followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviour followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement (reinforcer)

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviours by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (NOT punishment)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of s response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behaviour that it follows

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

respondent behaviour

behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behaviour

behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned this

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioural methods

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control 

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

modelling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behaviour

positive, constructive, helpful behaviour; the opposite of antisocial behaviour