AP Psych Semester 2 Midterm

phones

the most basic speech sounds for all humans

phonemes

the most basic speech sound of a language

morphemes

speech sounds collected into meaningful units

syntax

rules for word order in sentences

cooing

At 6-8 weeks, babies engage in _____, which produces all phones for human language

babbling

At 4 months, babies engage in ____, which produces phonemes for just their language.

repeating pairs

Ex. baba / dada; characteristic of 4 months

holophrases

At one year, babies engage in _____, or one word utterance.

telegraphic speech

At 18 months, babies engage in ______, which includes speaking a few words at a time.

Noam Chomsky

this person developed the theory of language acquistion device in our brain

Paul Broca; Broca’s area

this person discovered an area in the left frontal lobe in 1865; proved difficult to PRODUCE normal speech when damaged

Carl Wernicke; Wernicke’s area

this person discovered an area in the left temporal lobe in 1874; proved difficult to UNDERSTAND speech when damaged

Benjamin Lee Whorf

this person believed in linguistic determinism and thought that we could not think of things we have no words for

linguistic determinism

states that language determines the way we think

aphasia

the impairment of language

learning

the process of acquiring new information / behaviors that stay with us in permanent ways

reflexes

a species’ response due to change in environment; usually not referred to as learning

instincts

complex set of preprogrammed behaviors for a species; usually not referred to as learning

associationism

early perspective of psychology used to learn

Ex.

1. you go to your friend’s house and eat yummy food

2. you think about your friend’s house the next day

3. you salivate becuase you associate the house with yummy food

associative learning

also known as conditioning; two types are classical and operant

biological preparedness

suggests organisms are innately predisposed to associate some stimuli and responses easier than others

fear conditioning

more likely to develop phobias with things that are a threat to survival; helps avoid potentially dangerous situations in the future

taste aversion

associate taste of food with illness; illness does not need to be directly associated but just happened to follow consumption; protects individual from

learning predisposition

innate tendencies for language especially in the early childhood

language acquisition

critical period hypothesis; suggests there is an optimal time window for acquiring language

imprinting

practice of young animals done to form attachments during critical period early in life

Ivan Pavlov

a Russian physician and neurophysiologist that founded classical conditioning

classical conditioning

process of making an originally neutral event linked to something naturally paired

Pavlovian experiment

experiment where conditioned dogs salivated at the ring of a bell

neutral stimulus

stimulus that does not originally exicit a reponse

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that automatically elicits a response; happens without any learning

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that elicits a response due to repeated pairings

standard pairing

putting the neutral stimulus before unconditioned stimulus

delay conditioning

delay between presentation of NS and US

Ex. Pavlov waits 45 secs after ringing the bell to present food

temporal conditioning

there is no tangible NS, but US is presented a regular interval schedule
Ex. Pavlov gives his dogs food every hour —> dogs salivate every hour

simultaneous conditioning

UNSUCCESSFUL; NS and US presented at the same time

backwards conditioning

UNSUCCESSFUL; US presented before NS

acquisition

process of classical conditioning where learning is occurring

extinction

subject forgets relationship between NS and US; occurs when CS too many times w/o US

savings

when you want to recondition a forgotten response; process may take less time than original round

spontaneous recovery

conditioned response appears out of the blue one day

stimulus generalization

subject CAN’T tell the difference between similar stimuli

stimulus discrimination

subject CAN tell the difference between similar stimuli

John Watson

this professor from John Hopkins created the controversial “Little Albert” experiment

Mary Cover Jones

psychologist who found a way to decondition fears from children that were experimented on

Garcia Effect

occurs when one eats a food, felt sick, and was never able to eat the food again

reinforcer

behavior strengthened; anything that makes the behavior more likely to occur again

punisher

behavior diminished; any event that makes the behavior less likely to occur again

Law of Effect

states that behaviors will increase with reward and decrease with punishment; established by Edward Lee Thorndike

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (B. F. Skinner)

developed the operant chamber called “Skinner Box” that had a bar or key that an animal manipulated to get rewards

positive reinforcement

INCREASES behavior by INCREASING something desirable
Ex. do homework = candy

negative reinforcement

INCREASES behavior by DECREASING negative stimuli
Ex. do homework = less chores

positive punishment

DECREASES behavior by INCREASING something undesirable
Ex. stops misbehaving by getting more chores

negative punishment

DECREASES behavior by DECREASING positive stimuli
Ex. taking away cellphone when doomscrolling

primary reinforcers

reinforcers used to satisfy innate, biological needs for survival (Ex. food and warmth)

conditioned / secondary reinforcers

reinforcers learned to associate with primary reinforcers
Ex. money —> value that could be used at a later time

shaping

technique for behavior change

successive approximations of behavior

rewards smaller behaviors that lead to bigger ones
Ex. training dog to fetch newspaper —> reward every time he gets closer

Premack Principle

using high-probability behaviors to reinforce low-probability behaviors
Ex. eating vegatables (low prob) before dessert (high prob)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing desired response every time it occurs; can lead to unwarranted consequences

partial reinforcement

reinforces desired response only some of the time; takes more time but less likely to be extinct

fixed-ratio schedule

fast learning; reinforcing response after SET NUMBER of reponses
Ex. dog sits 5 times —> reward; dog understands he is rewarded every 5th time

variable-ratio schedule

fast learning; reinforces response after AVG NUMBER of occurred responses; more unpredictable but hard to go extinct because of unpredictability
Ex. lottery, slot machine

fixed-interval schedule

scalloped learning; reinforce response only after set amount of time passed
Ex. quiz every Friday; studying more frequent as quiz draws near

variable-interval schedule

slow but steady; reinforce response at unpredictable but average TIME INTERVALS
Ex. pop-quizzes any day instead of just Fridays —> constant studying

cognitive learning

takes into account the impact of thoughts on the learning process

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not visible until the behavior is rewarded

1930s study by Tolman and Honzik

experiment that rewarded rats with food after completing a maze; rats rewarded showed faster times

discovery learning

type of learning based on sudden understandings / insight

sudden insight

the lightbulb moment in your head

learned helplessness

occurs when subjets learns they are not able to escape; “giving up”

Martin Seligman

researched learned helplessness; shocked dogs in a shuttle box until the dog had learned helplessness

social learning

all learning we acquire by watching and imitating others; aka OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, vicarious learning, modeling

1961 Albert Bandura “Bobo Doll Experiment”

experiment where children watched an adult model act in different ways to Bobo Dolll; concluded that those who watched an aggressive model were far more likely to act aggressive too

intrinsic motivator

the drive to do something through inherent satisfaction instead of external reward

extrinsic motivator

the drive to do something to earn a reward or avoid a negative outcome

social psychology

study of how humans think, feel, and act in social situations

attitudes

feelings we have and beliefs we hold regarding the world around us

persuasion

tactic to change one’s attitudes

central route of persuasion

relies on facts / specific details

peripheral route of perusasion

relies on emotions / smaller details

mere-exposure effect

the more times you hear a message of persuasion, the more likely you are to change your mind

cognitive dissonance

experiencing an uncomfortable feeling when your attitudes and behaviors are not in alignment

justification of effort

effort to make cognitive dissonance go away; lying to ourselves

Dr. Leon Festinger (late 1950s)

conducted experiment to show cognitive dissonance; had participants turn pegs for hours, paid either $1 or $20

$1 —> said it wasn’t so bad; justification of effort to make dissonance leave

$20 —> said it was boring; justified by saying at least they made $20

attributions

the way we try to explain the cause of things we see

dispositional attitude

we view the cause as related the person’s personality

Ex. girl is sad —> “she’s depressed”

fundamental attribution error

tendency to underestimate the power of the situation / overemphasize personal disposition of the individual

Ex. girl yells on the phone —> “ Wow, she has anger issues”

just-world phenomenon

tendency to have a feeling that people get what they deserve

Ex. car runs into fire hydrant —> thinks careless driver (wrong) —> wrecked car = what they deserve

self-serving bias

normal tendency to be overly generous with ourselves when making attribution calls

social roles

expected behaviors we have as a function of our position / relationships in life

ascribed roles

roles born with you

Ex. son / daughter / sister / brother

achieved roles

roles that are earned

Ex. athlete / employee

Philip Zimbardo

developed 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment; assigned young men to prison guard / prisoner roles; showed how people could act out of character due to roles

group norms

standards / rules for how people should act in given situations
Ex. natural leader

“Broken Window’s Theory”

states that the presence eof broken windows are grafitti are more likely in more vandalized areas due to the norm

social influence

what happens when behavior is induced by other people

obedience

changing our behavior due to the presence / perceived presence of an authority figure

Stanley Miligram

1963 experiment; experiment where teacher would shock student when the answers to questions were incorrect

conclusion: shocks got increasingly higher but participants kept going in presence of reinforcer

compliance

change in our behavior because someone (not of authority) asks you

Ex. asking friend to buy ice cream —> asking as a friend, not person of authority