exam 3 (final)
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functions of the respiratory system
\-maintain a constant O₂ & CO₂ in blood
\-acid-base balance
\-provides a means of gas exchange b/n the environment & the body
\-acid-base balance
\-provides a means of gas exchange b/n the environment & the body
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ventilation
process of moving air in & out of lungs
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respiration
ventilation & exchange of gases in lungs
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internal respiration
at the cell
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external respiration
at the lung
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conducting zone
\-10% of total lung volume
\-air passed to the alveoli
\-anatomical dead space
\-nose, trachea, carina
\-air passed to the alveoli
\-anatomical dead space
\-nose, trachea, carina
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respiratory zone
\-90% of total lung volume
\-where gas exchange (O₂ & CO₂) occurs
\-alveolar ducts & capillaries
\-where gas exchange (O₂ & CO₂) occurs
\-alveolar ducts & capillaries
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nose
\-warms, humidifies & filters air (air conditioning)
\-100% humidified (47 mmHg at body temp)
\-100% humidified (47 mmHg at body temp)
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trachea
\-surrounded by cartilage
\-high resistance to airflow, slows done air
\-high resistance to airflow, slows done air
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carina
\-at base of trachea
\-primary coughing reflex
\-primary coughing reflex
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type 1 alveoli
1 layer of epithelial cells
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type 2 alveoli
surfactant secreting
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surfactant
\-lines surface of alveoli
\-liquid containg lipoproteins
\-↓ surface tension of alveolar membranes
\-gives lungs good compliance
\-liquid containg lipoproteins
\-↓ surface tension of alveolar membranes
\-gives lungs good compliance
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compliance
\-change in volume for a change in pressure
\-reason why we can inflate & deflate our lungs easily
\-reason why we can inflate & deflate our lungs easily
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O₂ cost of breathing
at rest= 6 mLO₂/min
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inspiration at rest
diaphragm pulls down, lungs are expanded (active)
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expiration at rest
diaphragm relaxes, lungs passively recoil
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muscles of inspiration (exercise)
\-pulls ribs up: scalenes & sternoclridomastoid
\-pulls ribs out: external intercostal
\-diaphragm
\-pulls ribs out: external intercostal
\-diaphragm
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muscles of expiration (exercise)
\-pulls ribs down & in: internal intercostal
\-external oblique, rectus abdominis, internal oblique, transverse abdominis (abdominals push diaphragm up)
\-external oblique, rectus abdominis, internal oblique, transverse abdominis (abdominals push diaphragm up)
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gas diffusion
moves from areas of high to low pressure
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sites of gas diffusion in the body
\-alveoli-capillary interface
\-tissue-capillary interface
\-tissue-capillary interface
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factors that affect gas exchange
↑ gas solubility, ↑ pressure gradient, ↑ diffusion space, ↑ surface area
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Fick
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Hartog Hamburger
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gas solubility
\-positively related
\-how easily gas can dissolve into environment
\-how easily gas can dissolve into environment
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pressure gradient
\-positiviely related
\-biggest driver of oxygen, high to low pressure
\-biggest driver of oxygen, high to low pressure
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diffusion space
\-inversly related
\-tissue thickness
\-connection with cells of capillaries & alveoli, want it to be very thin
\-tissue thickness
\-connection with cells of capillaries & alveoli, want it to be very thin
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surface area
positively related
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ficks law of diffusion
\-R= rate pf gas exchange
\-D= solubility constant
\-A= surface area
\-∆p= difference in pressure gradient between capillaries & alveoli
\-d= diffusion space/tissue thickness
\-D= solubility constant
\-A= surface area
\-∆p= difference in pressure gradient between capillaries & alveoli
\-d= diffusion space/tissue thickness
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atmospheric gas fractions at sea-level
\-O₂= 0.2093
\-CO₂= 0.0003
\-N₂= 0.7904
\-CO₂= 0.0003
\-N₂= 0.7904
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change in atmospheric pressure
\-↑ altitude= ↓ pressure
\-due to gravity which causes gas molecules to be close to the ground
\-due to gravity which causes gas molecules to be close to the ground
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alveolar partial pressure of gases
\-O₂= 0.146
\-CO₂= 0.056
\-CO₂= 0.056
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O₂ transport in blood
1)dissolved in blood
\-3 mLO₂/L blood dissolved
\-low dissolvability of O₂
\-1.5%
2)bound to hemoglobin
\-binds & carries O₂
\-1.34 mLO₂/ gm Hb (when fully saturated)
\-98.5 %
\-3 mLO₂/L blood dissolved
\-low dissolvability of O₂
\-1.5%
2)bound to hemoglobin
\-binds & carries O₂
\-1.34 mLO₂/ gm Hb (when fully saturated)
\-98.5 %
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hemoglobin
\-250 million Hb or 1 RBC
\-binds 4 O₂ molecules
\-men= 150 g Hb/L blood
\-women= 130 g Hb/L blood
\-1 g Hb can combine w/ 1.34 mLO₂
\-binds 4 O₂ molecules
\-men= 150 g Hb/L blood
\-women= 130 g Hb/L blood
\-1 g Hb can combine w/ 1.34 mLO₂
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arterial-venous O₂ difference
\-(a-v)O₂
\-diffencene b/n CaO₂ & CvO₂
\-amount of O₂ extracted by tissue
\-diffencene b/n CaO₂ & CvO₂
\-amount of O₂ extracted by tissue
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Fick equation VO₂
\-(HR×SV)×(a-v)O₂ diffencene
\-illustrated the factors determining VO₂
\-illustrated the factors determining VO₂
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CO₂ transport
1)dissolved in plasma (10%)
2)bound to Hb (20%)
3)formed as HCO₃ on RBC (70%)
2)bound to Hb (20%)
3)formed as HCO₃ on RBC (70%)
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bicarbonate-CO₂ transport system
\-CO₂ + H₂O→H₂CO₃→H⁺ + HCO₃⁻
\-Cl⁻ shift/ Hamberger shift
\-Cl⁻ shift/ Hamberger shift
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rest-to-work transitions
1)rapid ↑ in ventilation
\-proportional to intensity
2)rapid ↑ in pulmonary blood flow
3)airway dilation & ↓ resistance to air flow
\-bronchioles
\-proportional to intensity
2)rapid ↑ in pulmonary blood flow
3)airway dilation & ↓ resistance to air flow
\-bronchioles
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ventilatroy control during submax exercise
\-higher brain center (primary drive to increase ventilation during exercise)
\-chemoreceptors (↑ pCO₂ & ↓ pH) & mechanoreceptors (muscular movement)
\-respiratory muscles (↑ ventilation)
\-peripheral chemoreceptors carotid/aortic (↓ pO₂, ↑ pCO₂ & ↓ pH)
\-↑ temp & catecholamines
\-chemoreceptors (↑ pCO₂ & ↓ pH) & mechanoreceptors (muscular movement)
\-respiratory muscles (↑ ventilation)
\-peripheral chemoreceptors carotid/aortic (↓ pO₂, ↑ pCO₂ & ↓ pH)
\-↑ temp & catecholamines
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ventrilation: incremental exercise
\-sharp rise in Vε
\-motor recruitment pattern
\-propriceptive input
\-↑ acidosis
\-↑ body temp
\-↑ epi/ne
\-motor recruitment pattern
\-propriceptive input
\-↑ acidosis
\-↑ body temp
\-↑ epi/ne
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anterior pituitary hormones
\-thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
\-adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)
\-LH & FSH (act on ovaries, regulate menstration)
\-growth hormone
\-prolactin (milk production when pregnant)
\-adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)
\-LH & FSH (act on ovaries, regulate menstration)
\-growth hormone
\-prolactin (milk production when pregnant)
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growth hormone (GH)
\-signal for release: exercise & hypoglycemia
\-acts on muscle, adipose, & liver
\-releases from anterior pituitary
\-essential for normal growth
\-stimulated protein synthesis & bone growth
\-decreases glucose uptake into muscle
\-increases lipolysis
\-stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver
\-acts on muscle, adipose, & liver
\-releases from anterior pituitary
\-essential for normal growth
\-stimulated protein synthesis & bone growth
\-decreases glucose uptake into muscle
\-increases lipolysis
\-stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver
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anti-diuretic hormone
\-released from posterior pituitary
\-signal for release: sweating or dehydration & ↑ plasma osmolality
\-acts on kidney (collecting duct)
\-↑ H₂O reabsorption
\-maintain plasma volume
\-signal for release: sweating or dehydration & ↑ plasma osmolality
\-acts on kidney (collecting duct)
\-↑ H₂O reabsorption
\-maintain plasma volume
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osmolality
\-decreased water in plasma
\-concentration of solutes
\-concentration of solutes
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adrenal medulla
\-part of the SNS
\-secretes catecholamines (epi/ne)
\-secretes catecholamines (epi/ne)
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adrenal cortex
\-secretes steroid hormones
\~mineralocorticoids: aldosterone, corticosterone, deoxycorticosterone
\~glucocorticoids: cortisol
\~androgens
\~mineralocorticoids: aldosterone, corticosterone, deoxycorticosterone
\~glucocorticoids: cortisol
\~androgens
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aldosterone
\-releases from adrenal cortex
\-signal for release:
\~decreased blood volume/pressure
\~decreased plasma sodium
\~angiotensin II: potent vasoconstricter
\-acts on kidney (distal convoluted tubule)
\-actions:
\~maintain plasma Na⁺ & volume
\~↑ H₂O reabsorption
\~BP regulation
\~stimulate thirst
\-signal for release:
\~decreased blood volume/pressure
\~decreased plasma sodium
\~angiotensin II: potent vasoconstricter
\-acts on kidney (distal convoluted tubule)
\-actions:
\~maintain plasma Na⁺ & volume
\~↑ H₂O reabsorption
\~BP regulation
\~stimulate thirst
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erythropoietin (EPO)
\-released from the kidney
\-signal for release: hypoxia, anemia, & blood loss
\-ergogenic aid alert
\-action: stimulates RBC production
\-signal for release: hypoxia, anemia, & blood loss
\-ergogenic aid alert
\-action: stimulates RBC production
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insulin
\-released from pancreas (β cells)
\-signal for release: ↑ BG & AA’s in blood
\-acts on muscle & adipose
\-actions:
\~untake of FFA’s, AA, & glucose
\~inhibits gluconeogenesis, lypolysis, & protein breakdown
\-signal for release: ↑ BG & AA’s in blood
\-acts on muscle & adipose
\-actions:
\~untake of FFA’s, AA, & glucose
\~inhibits gluconeogenesis, lypolysis, & protein breakdown
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glucagon
\-released from the pancreas (α cells)
\-signal for release: ↓ BG/AA’s in blood & prolonged exercise
\-acts on liver
\-actions:
\~↑ gluconeogenesis & glycogen breakdown
\~↑ lypolysis & protein breakdown
\~inhibits TG & glycogen synthesis
\-signal for release: ↓ BG/AA’s in blood & prolonged exercise
\-acts on liver
\-actions:
\~↑ gluconeogenesis & glycogen breakdown
\~↑ lypolysis & protein breakdown
\~inhibits TG & glycogen synthesis
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epi/norepi
\-released by adrenal medulla
\-↑ linearly with exercise
\-acts on liver, muscle, & adipose
\-actions: ↑ lipolysis, gluconeogenesis in liver, & glycogenolysis in muscle
\-↑ linearly with exercise
\-acts on liver, muscle, & adipose
\-actions: ↑ lipolysis, gluconeogenesis in liver, & glycogenolysis in muscle
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athletic amenorrhea
\-FSH & LH have altered release from pituitary
\-↓ estrogen
\-causes female athletes to lose period
\-↓ estrogen
\-causes female athletes to lose period
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temperature homeostasis
to maintain a constant core temp, heat lost must match heat gain
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heat gain
\-PA
\-TEF: thermic effect of food
\-hormonal responses
\-warm environment
\-TEF: thermic effect of food
\-hormonal responses
\-warm environment
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heat loss
\-radiation
\-conduction
\-convection
\-evaporation
\-conduction
\-convection
\-evaporation
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conduction
transfer of heat via direct contact with another surface (cold bleacher)
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convection
transfer of heat via movement of molecules within fluids or gases (air)
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evaporation
\-transfer of heat when liquids change physical state becoming gas
\-80% heat loss during exercise
\-20% heat loss at rest
\-80% heat loss during exercise
\-20% heat loss at rest
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radiation
\-transfer of electromagnetic heat waves
\-60% heat loss at rest
\-5% heat loss during exercise
\-60% heat loss at rest
\-5% heat loss during exercise
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evaporative cooling rate depends on
\-temp & relative humidity
\-convective current around the body
\-amount of skin surface exposed
\-convective current around the body
\-amount of skin surface exposed
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factors related to heat injury
\-aclimatization
\-hydration
\-wind
\-temp
\-humidity
\-clothing
\-fitness
\-exercise intensity
\-hydration
\-wind
\-temp
\-humidity
\-clothing
\-fitness
\-exercise intensity
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acclimatization
\-earlier onsent of sweating
\-↑ sweat rate, ↓ body temp
\-9-14 days, > 1 hr exercise
\-↑ sweat rate, ↓ body temp
\-9-14 days, > 1 hr exercise
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hydration
↑ sweat rate, ↓ body temp
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wind
\-↑ heat loss by convection
\-↑ rate of evaporation
\-↑ rate of evaporation
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temp
\-↑ temp=heat gain
\-evaporative cooling
\-evaporative cooling
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humidity
\-↑ humidity=heat gain
\-lose evaporative cooling
\-lose evaporative cooling
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clothing
need skin exposure
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fitness
↑ fitness=↓ risk of injury
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exercise intensity
\-↑ intensity=↑ risk of injury
\-monitor intensity closely
\-monitor intensity closely
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sweat rate
2-3 L/hr
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dehydration: CV function
\-↓ skin BF, SV, & Q
\-↑ HR & (a-v)O₂, maintain O₂ supply to muscle
\-↑ HR & (a-v)O₂, maintain O₂ supply to muscle
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hyperthermia: CNS
\-motivation & motor control
\-hypothalamus can be damaged
\-hypothalamus can be damaged
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hyperthermia: neuromuscular
↓ neural activation of muscle (MU recruitment)
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signs of heat acclimatization
\-↑ plasma volume & VR
\-early onset of sweating during exercise
\-more dilute sweat (less Na⁺ lost)
\-↑ SV & ↓ HR, Q is maintained
\-↑ capacity for sustained sweat response
\-↓ core temp for given workload
\-↓ glycogenolysis
\-early onset of sweating during exercise
\-more dilute sweat (less Na⁺ lost)
\-↑ SV & ↓ HR, Q is maintained
\-↑ capacity for sustained sweat response
\-↓ core temp for given workload
\-↓ glycogenolysis
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dehydration
\-1%: rapid ↑ in temp
\-2%: ↓ performance
\-3%: ↓ coordination
\-4%: headache/nausea
\-5%: failure of thermoreg
\-6%: serious risk for collapse, permanent injury, & organ failure
\-2%: ↓ performance
\-3%: ↓ coordination
\-4%: headache/nausea
\-5%: failure of thermoreg
\-6%: serious risk for collapse, permanent injury, & organ failure
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dehydration calculation
\[(pre-exercise kg−post-exercise kg)÷pre-exercise kg\]×100
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gastric emptying rates affected by
\-temp
\-pH (acidity)
\-volume of fluid
\-CHO (6%), ↓ fat, ↓ protein, ↓ fructose
\-pH (acidity)
\-volume of fluid
\-CHO (6%), ↓ fat, ↓ protein, ↓ fructose
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max gastric emptying rate
1\.2 L/hr
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water replacement before exercise
\-300-500 mL H₂O, 2 hrs prior (based on hydration status)
\-more H₂O w/ glycerol (“hyperhydration”)
\-1.2 g glycerol/kg w/ 26 mL water/kg for 2 hrs prior
\-more H₂O w/ glycerol (“hyperhydration”)
\-1.2 g glycerol/kg w/ 26 mL water/kg for 2 hrs prior
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water replacement during exercise
\-< 1 hr: H₂O only
\->1 hr: H₂O & CHO
\-> 2 hrs: add Na⁺ (40 mmol/L)
\->1 hr: H₂O & CHO
\-> 2 hrs: add Na⁺ (40 mmol/L)
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rehydration is improved by
\-volume ingested > 1.5 times body weight loss
\-CHO-electrolyte solution is ingested
\-glycerol is added to drink
\-CHO-electrolyte solution is ingested
\-glycerol is added to drink
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severe hypohydration
\-> 4% body weight loss
\-can require >24 hrs for complete rehydration
\-can require >24 hrs for complete rehydration
Note 
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