AP Psychology

Roots of Psychology

The origins of psychology can be traced back to philosophy and physiology/biology in ancient Greece over 2,000 years ago, with key figures like Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke contributing to early theories.

Structuralism

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt, structuralism focused on introspective analysis of immediate conscious sensations to identify the basic elements of consciousness like sensations, feelings, and images.

Functionalism

William James led the functionalist approach, emphasizing the study of behavioral functions, active processing of sensations and actions, and practical applications of psychological findings.

Behavioral Approach

This approach focuses on measuring and recording observable behavior in relation to the environment, emphasizing learning theory and the ABCs of behavior (Antecedent, Behavior, Consequences).

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory explored unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses, attributing personality and behavior to early life experiences and the unconscious mind.

Humanistic Approach

Humanistic psychologists like Maslow and Rogers emphasized free will, personal growth, and positive human behavior, valuing feelings and individual uniqueness.

Evolutionary Approach

Evolutionary psychologists explain behavior patterns as adaptations selected for increasing reproductive success, drawing from Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection.

Cognitive Approach

Cognitive psychologists study mental processes like thinking, memory, and language, focusing on information processing to understand human behavior.

Sociocultural Approach

This approach examines how cultural differences influence behavior, emphasizing the impact of social and environmental factors on human behavior.

Biopsychosocial Model

Integrating biological, psychological, and social factors, this model provides a comprehensive understanding of behavior and mental processes, drawing from multiple psychological approaches.

Domains of Psychology

Different domains like clinical, counseling, developmental, educational, forensic, health, industrial/organizational, neuropsychology, psychometrics, and social psychology focus on specific areas of research and practice within psychology.

Experimental Method

Involves controlled experiments, random selection, experimental and control groups, confounding variables, operational definitions, and methods to eliminate biases like experimenter bias and demand characteristics.

Percentile score

Indicates the percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the degree of relatedness or association between two sets of data, X and Y.

Scattergrams

Graphical illustrations showing the strength and direction of correlations between paired X and Y scores.

Inferential statistics

Used to interpret data and draw conclusions, determining if results can be generalized to the whole population.

Statistical significance (p)

Measures the likelihood that differences between groups result from a real difference rather than chance.

Meta-analysis

Combines results of individual research studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Ethical Guidelines

Principles and code of conduct by the APA for psychologists in various roles.

Intellectual property

Discussing authorship credit openly to avoid conflicts.

Informed consent

Ensures voluntary participation in research with knowledge of risks, benefits, and rights.

Biological Bases of Behavior

Study of brain structures, functions, and nervous system organization.

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system, consisting of cell body, dendrites, and axon.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals stored in synaptic vesicles that transmit signals between neurons.

Action potential

Rapid change in potential across a neuron's membrane when stimulated to threshold.

Reflex arc

Pathway of impulse conduction involving sensory, interneurons, and motor neurons in reflex actions.

Endocrine system

Consists of glands secreting hormones into the blood to regulate bodily functions.

Ovaries and Testes

Gonads responsible for producing hormones essential for reproduction and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of how natural selection favored behaviors contributing to survival and the spread of genes, examining universal behaviors shared by all people.

Behavioral Geneticists

Researchers who investigate the role of genes and the environment in various aspects like mental ability, personality, and interests, focusing on individual differences.

Identical Twins

Twins sharing all genes as they develop from the same fertilized egg, known as monozygotic twins.

Heritability

Proportion of variation in a population's individuals due to genetic causes.

Chromosomes

DNA segments determining traits and carrying genetic information to new cells during reproduction.

Turner Syndrome

Condition where individuals have only one X sex chromosome (XO).

Genotype

Genetic makeup determining an individual's traits.

Phenotype

The expression of genes in an individual.

Circadian Rhythm

Internal process regulating the sleep-wake cycle, influenced by light and darkness in the environment.

Hypnagogic State

Relaxed state transitioning to the first stage of sleep, Non-REM-1.

Freud's Dream Analysis

Analyzing dreams to reveal unconscious desires and fears, distinguishing between manifest and latent content.

Insomnia

Inability to fall or stay asleep.

Narcolepsy

Condition where individuals uncontrollably fall asleep, often directly into REM sleep.

Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.

Meditation

Techniques focusing concentration away from thoughts and feelings to induce calmness and inner peace.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals altering perception, behavior, and mood by passing through the blood-brain barrier.

Absolute Threshold

Weakest level of a stimulus detectable at least half the time.

Transduction

Conversion of stimulus energy into neural impulses.

Vision

Study of visual perception involving the retina, cones, rods, and visual cortex in the occipital lobes.

Color Vision

Perception of colors based on wavelengths of light reflected to the eyes.

Hearing

Sensory modality for human language, involving amplitude, pitch, and sound localization.

Ear

Outer, middle, and inner ear structures involved in hearing and sound processing.

Place Theory

Theory explaining how the position on the basilar membrane determines the peak of waves based on tone frequency.

Frequency Theory

Neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve match the frequency of a tone, enabling the sense of pitch.

Conduction Deafness

Loss of hearing due to issues like a punctured eardrum or ossicles losing vibration ability.

Nerve (Sensorineural) Deafness

Hearing loss from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory neurons.

Somatosensation

General term for tactile sensations like touch, warmth, cold, and pain.

Gate-Control Theory

Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall's theory explaining the experience of pain.

Kinesthesis

System enabling the sense of body parts' position and movement.

Gustation and Olfaction

Chemical senses of taste and smell, important for warning and attraction.

Selective Attention

Focusing awareness on a limited aspect of experience.

Gestalt Principles

Organizing principles for form perception, including figure-ground relationship and closure.

Depth Perception

Ability to judge the distance of objects using cues like retinal disparity and motion parallax.

Perceptual Constancy

Maintaining the perception of object size, shape, and brightness despite changes in sensory input.

Classical Conditioning

Learning where a new stimulus is associated with an existing response.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, reinforcing desired behaviors.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Including latent learning, insight, and social learning.

Models of Memory

Information Processing Model and Levels-of-Processing Model for encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Semantic encoding

Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input, associated with deep processing.

Deep processing

Attaching meaning to information and creating associations between new and existing memories.

Three-Stage Model

Atkinson–Shiffrin model describing sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Briefly holds visual (iconic) or auditory (echoic) information before encoding.

Selective attention

Focusing on specific stimuli in sensory memory for encoding into short-term memory.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires focused attention and conscious effort.

Short-term memory (STM)

Holds limited information briefly unless processed further.

Chunk

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

Working memory model

Active memory system with phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and central executive.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Permanent memory system for facts and experiences.

Explicit memory

Consciously known facts and experiences (semantic and episodic memory).

Implicit memory

Unconsciously recalled skills and procedures (procedural memories).

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform planned actions.

Hierarchies

Organizing concepts from general to specific classes.

Schemas

Mental frameworks evolving with new information.

Connectionism

Memory stored in neural connections throughout the brain.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increased efficiency of signal transmission in long-term memory.

Retrieval

Process of accessing information from memory storage.

Distributed practice

Spreading learning over sessions to aid memory retention.

Performance Tests

Include SATs, AP tests, Wechsler intelligence tests, Stanford–Binet intelligence tests, and most classroom tests.

Observational Tests

Assess typical behavior or performance in a specific context without a single, well-defined task.

Speed Tests

Administer a large number of easy items with strict time limits.

General Mental Ability

Crucial for scholastic performance and cognitively demanding tasks.

Interests

Influence reactions and satisfaction with situations.

Personality

Involves consistent behavior across various situations.

Aptitude Tests

Predict future performance or assess learning capacity.

Achievement Tests

Evaluate what a person has learned.

Ethics in Testing

Tests should be developed and used ethically to prevent abuse.

Intelligence

Reification occurs when a construct is treated as a tangible object.

Intelligence Testing

Wechsler defined intelligence as the capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.

Intellectual Disability

Replaces mental retardation, requires an IQ score at or below 70, and difficulty adapting in daily life.

Adaptive Behavior

Expressed in conceptual, social, and practical skills.

Kinds of Intelligence

Spearman's g, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence.