1453: Fall of Constantinople - The Ottoman Empire captures Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and boosting Ottoman control over Eastern Mediterranean trade. Mid-1400s: European Age of Exploration Begins - Motivated by the search for direct trade routes to Asia, European nations like Portugal and Spain begin to explore the Atlantic. 1450s: Invention of the Printing Press - Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press in Europe revolutionizes the spread of ideas and literacy. Late 15th Century 1492: Columbus's First Voyage - Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas, initiating sustained European contact with the Americas and the Columbian Exchange. 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas - Divides newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian. 16th Century (1500s) 1500s: Columbian Exchange - Widespread exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds, profoundly impacting global populations. 1517: Martin Luther's 95 Theses - Marks the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, challenging the Catholic Church's practices and leading to religious conflicts in Europe. 1521: Fall of Tenochtitlán - Hernán Cortés and Spanish forces conquer the Aztec Empire, beginning Spanish dominance in Mesoamerica. 1532–1533: Conquest of the Inca Empire - Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca Empire, extending Spanish control in South America. Mid-1500s: Rise of the Atlantic Slave Trade - European nations begin to establish colonies in the Americas, leading to the establishment of the transatlantic slave trade. 1555: Peace of Augsburg - Recognizes the division of Christianity in the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism. 1588: Spanish Armada Defeated - The defeat of Spain’s naval fleet by England marks a shift in naval power and contributes to England’s rise as a major colonial power. 17th Century (1600s) 1600: Establishment of the British East India Company - Sets the stage for British influence and control in India over the coming centuries. 1603: Tokugawa Shogunate Established - Unifies Japan and brings a period of peace and isolation (sakoku), lasting until the mid-19th century. 1618–1648: Thirty Years' War - A major religious and political conflict in Europe, leading to the Peace of Westphalia, which introduces the concept of sovereign states. 1644: Manchu Conquest of China - Marks the beginning of the Qing Dynasty in China, which will become the last imperial dynasty. Mid-1600s: Scientific Revolution - Figures like Galileo, Newton, and Kepler lay the foundations of modern science, challenging traditional beliefs about the universe. 1689: Glorious Revolution - Establishes constitutional monarchy in England and strengthens parliamentary power over the monarchy. 1689–1725: Reign of Peter the Great - Peter I of Russia modernizes Russia and establishes it as a major European power. 18th Century (Early 1700s) 1700s: Rise of Mercantilism - European powers compete for global trade dominance and colonial wealth, following policies that emphasize national self-sufficiency. 1707: Formation of Great Britain - England and Scotland unite, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. 1720s: Height of the Atlantic Slave Trade - The transatlantic slave trade reaches its peak, with millions of Africans forcibly transported to the Americas. 1750: Beginning of the Industrial Revolution - Although traditionally set later, the roots of the Industrial Revolution start to take shape in Britain, with innovations in textiles and manufacturing.

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