Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches Big Idea: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This unit asks: Why do people think, feel, and behave the way they do, and how do psychologists study it? 1. Early Schools of Thought Structuralism Focused on breaking conscious experiences into smaller parts. Example: Describing every taste, smell, and feeling while eating pizza. Functionalism Focused on WHY behaviors and thoughts exist. Example: Fear exists because it helps humans survive danger. Connection: Structuralists asked “What are thoughts made of?” Functionalists asked “What purpose do thoughts serve?” 2. Major Psychological Perspectives Biological Perspective Behavior comes from the brain, genetics, and hormones. Example: Depression connected to serotonin levels. Behavioral Perspective Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments. Example: A dog learns tricks because it gets treats. Cognitive Perspective Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Example: Why students remember some facts better than others. Humanistic Perspective Humans naturally strive for growth. Example: Trying to achieve goals and improve yourself. Psychodynamic Perspective Unconscious conflicts affect behavior. Example: Getting unusually angry because of hidden stress. Evolutionary Perspective Behaviors developed because they helped survival. Example: Humans naturally fearing dangerous animals. Sociocultural Perspective Behavior is shaped by culture and society. Example: Different cultures have different expectations for personal space. 3. Research Methods Experiment Used to determine cause and effect. Independent Variable What the researcher changes. Dependent Variable What the researcher measures. Example: Studying whether sleep affects test scores. * Amount of sleep = IV * Test score = DV Correlation Shows relationship between variables. Important: Correlation does NOT equal causation. Example: Ice cream sales and drowning both rise during summer. Random Assignment Participants randomly placed into groups. Helps reduce bias. Double-Blind Procedure Neither researchers nor participants know who receives treatment. Prevents expectations from affecting results. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves asking: * Which perspective best explains this behavior? * Which research method should be used? * Why doesn’t correlation prove causation? Example: A psychologist studies how rewards affect studying. → Behavioral perspective + experiment Unit 2: Biological Basis of Behavior Big Idea: Your brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics all shape behavior. The whole unit asks: How do your body and brain create thoughts, emotions, and behavior? 1. Nature vs. Nurture = Who You Are Main Idea: Your behavior comes from BOTH: * Nature = genetics/heredity * Nurture = environment and experiences Example: Someone may inherit anxiety tendencies but stressful experiences can make anxiety stronger. 2. Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain + spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Sympathetic Nervous System Activates during stress. Example: Heart racing before giving a speech. Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms the body afterward. 3. Neurotransmitters Dopamine Reward and pleasure. Example: Social media likes feel rewarding. Serotonin Mood and sleep. Low levels linked to depression. Acetylcholine Movement and memory. Linked to Alzheimer’s disease. GABA Calms nervous system. Low GABA linked to anxiety. 4. Brain Structures Frontal Lobe Decision-making and personality. Occipital Lobe Vision. Temporal Lobe Hearing and memory. Hippocampus Memory formation. Amygdala Fear and aggression. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student panicking before a test: * amygdala activates fear * sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate * adrenaline releases Unit 3: Sensation and Perception Big Idea: Sensation detects information. Perception interprets information. This unit asks: How does the brain create your experience of the world? 1. Sensation Absolute Threshold Smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice something. Example: Hearing a quiet text notification. Difference Threshold Smallest noticeable difference between stimuli. Example: Noticing the TV volume changed. Sensory Adaptation Becoming less aware of constant stimulation. Example: Not noticing your hoodie after wearing it awhile. 2. Vision Rods Help see in dim light. Cones Detect color. Blind Spot Area without receptors. 3. Hearing Frequency Determines pitch. Amplitude Determines loudness. 4. Perception Gestalt Principles The brain organizes pieces into meaningful wholes. Example: Seeing a complete logo even with missing parts. Depth Perception Ability to see distance in 3D. Example: Catching a volleyball. Perceptual Set Expectations affect perception. Example: Misreading a word because you expected something else. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The exam often gives optical illusions or perception scenarios. Example: A person stops noticing a strong smell after 10 minutes. → sensory adaptation Unit 4: Learning Big Idea: Behavior changes because of experience. This unit asks: How do humans and animals learn behaviors? 1. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Pavlov’s Dogs Dogs learned to associate a bell with food. Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally causes response. Conditioned Stimulus Previously neutral stimulus causing learned response. Example: Feeling hungry when hearing the microwave beep. 2. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Positive Reinforcement Adding something good to increase behavior. Example: Getting money for good grades. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant. Example: Seatbelt alarm stopping. Punishment Decreases behavior. 3. Observational Learning Learning by watching others. Example: Kids copying influencers online. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves reinforcement examples. Example: A student studies harder after praise from parents. → positive reinforcement Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Big Idea: Humans think, remember, solve problems, and use language. This unit asks: How does the mind process information? 1. Memory Process Encoding Getting information into memory. Storage Keeping information over time. Retrieval Getting information back. 2. Types of Memory Sensory Memory Very brief memory. Short-Term Memory Temporary limited storage. Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent storage. Working Memory Actively using information. Example: Doing math in your head. 3. Forgetting Proactive Interference Old information disrupts new information. Retroactive Interference New information disrupts old information. Example: Forgetting old password after learning a new one. 4. Problem Solving Algorithm Step-by-step method. Heuristic Mental shortcut. Confirmation Bias Looking for information supporting beliefs. Example: Only reading opinions you already agree with. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student mixes up Spanish vocabulary from last year with current vocabulary. → proactive interference Unit 6: Developmental Psychology Big Idea: Humans develop physically, mentally, and socially across life. This unit asks: How do people change from infancy through adulthood? 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Babies learn through senses and actions. Object Permanence Understanding objects still exist when hidden. Example: Babies searching for hidden toys. Preoperational Stage Children use language but think egocentrically. Egocentrism Difficulty understanding another perspective. Example: A child assuming everyone sees exactly what they see. Concrete Operational Stage Logical thinking develops. Formal Operational Stage Abstract thinking develops. Example: Thinking about hypothetical situations. 2. Attachment Strong emotional bond with caregivers. Secure Attachment Healthy trust and comfort. 3. Parenting Styles Authoritative Strict but supportive. Usually healthiest. Authoritarian Strict with little warmth. Permissive Warm but few rules. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A teenager exploring identity and future goals. → Erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality Big Idea: Motivation drives behavior, emotions affect actions, and personality shapes how people interact. 1. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory People act to reduce discomfort. Example: Eating when hungry. Maslow’s Hierarchy Basic needs come before higher goals. Example: Someone struggling financially may focus on survival before self-esteem. 2. Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Physical response first. Example: Heart races THEN fear is felt. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion and physical response happen together. Schachter Two-Factor Theory Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation. 3. Personality Trait Theory Personality made of stable characteristics. Big Five Traits * openness * conscientiousness * extraversion * agreeableness * neuroticism BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student interpreting sweaty palms before a game as excitement. → Schachter two-factor theory Unit 8: Clinical Psychology Big Idea: Psychological disorders affect thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This unit asks: How are disorders identified and treated? 1. Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Constant excessive worry. Phobias Irrational fears. OCD Obsessions and compulsions. 2. Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Persistent sadness and loss of interest. Bipolar Disorder Extreme mood swings. 3. Schizophrenia Disordered thinking and perception. Hallucinations False sensory experiences. Delusions False beliefs. 4

Modern Civilizations — Semester 2 Exam Study Guide Exam Date: May 22 Format: Bubble Sheet Questions: 123 total • 50 Vocabulary/Matching • 50 Multiple Choice • 16 Map Skills • 7 Document-Based Questions ⸻ SECTION A — GEOGRAPHY SKILLS Key Vocabulary Cardinal Directions • North • South • East • West Shown on a compass rose. Intermediate Directions • Northeast • Northwest • Southeast • Southwest Latitude Imaginary lines that run east-west and measure distance north or south of the Equator. Longitude Imaginary lines that run north-south and measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Projection A flat map representation of Earth. Scale Shows distance on a map. Distortion When map shapes, sizes, or distances are changed because Earth is round. ⸻ 5 Themes of Geography 1. Location Where a place is. 2. Place What a place is like. 3. Movement How people, goods, and ideas move. 4. Region An area with common features. 5. Human-Environment Interaction How people affect and adapt to the environment. ⸻ Continents & Oceans 7 Continents • North America • South America • Europe • Asia • Africa • Australia • Antarctica 5 Oceans • Pacific • Atlantic • Indian • Arctic • Southern ⸻ CHAPTER 23 — SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & AGE OF EXPLORATION Section 1 — Scientific Revolution Key Vocabulary Geocentric Theory Earth is the center of the universe. Heliocentric Theory The sun is the center of the solar system. Elliptical Oval-shaped planetary orbits. Scientific Method Organized process of observation, testing, and experimentation. Scientific Rationalism Using reason and logic to understand the world. ⸻ Important People Galileo Galilei Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory. Isaac Newton Developed laws of motion and gravity. Nicolaus Copernicus Proposed heliocentric theory. René Descartes Believed truth comes through reason. Robert Hooke Studied cells using microscopes. Sir Francis Bacon Promoted experimentation and observation. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Educational ideas Muslim scholars adopted from India • Mathematics • Astronomy • Number system (including zero) How were cells discovered? Scientists used microscopes to observe tiny living structures. Who led the study of cells? Robert Hooke ⸻ Section 2 — The Age of Exploration Key Vocabulary Caravel Fast, maneuverable sailing ship used by explorers. Colony Land controlled by another country. Exploit To use resources for benefit or profit. Quinine Medicine used against malaria. Rivalry Competition between nations. Smallpox Deadly disease spread to Native Americans. ⸻ Important People & Places Christopher Columbus Sailed for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492. Columbian Exchange Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas. Dutch East India Company Controlled trade in Asia. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Sponsored Columbus’s voyage. Prince Henry the Navigator Encouraged Portuguese exploration. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who was Prince Henry the Navigator? A Portuguese prince who funded exploration schools, maps, and voyages. Why was the Caravel important? • Faster ship • Easier to steer • Could sail against the wind • Allowed longer ocean voyages ⸻ Section 3 — European Empires Key Vocabulary Conquistador Spanish conqueror in the Americas. Plantation Large farm using forced labor. Racism Belief that one race is superior. Triangular Trade Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Middle Passage Brutal voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas. ⸻ Important People & Places Atahualpa Last Inca emperor defeated by Spain. Francisco Pizarro Conquered the Inca Empire. Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire. Pedro Álvares Cabral Claimed Brazil for Portugal. Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Describe the invasion of Mexico • Hernán Cortés led Spanish conquistadors. • The Aztecs were led by Montezuma. • Spanish had guns, horses, steel weapons, and Native allies. • Smallpox weakened the Aztecs. Conditions of the Middle Passage • Crowded ships • Disease • Starvation • Abuse and death Achievements of Portugal • Explored African coast • Opened sea routes to Asia • Built trading empire ⸻ CHAPTER 24 — ENLIGHTENMENT & REVOLUTIONS Section 1 — The Age of Reason Key Vocabulary Absolute Monarch King or queen with total power. Divine Right Belief that rulers receive power from God. Natural Rights Basic rights all people are born with. Enlightened Despot Ruler who accepted Enlightenment ideas. Laissez-faire Government should not interfere in economy. Free Enterprise Businesses operate with little government control. Philosophe French Enlightenment thinker. ⸻ Important People John Locke Believed people have natural rights. Montesquieu Supported separation of powers. Voltaire Supported freedom of speech and religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Believed government should follow the will of the people. Mary Wollstonecraft Supported women’s rights and education. Adam Smith Wrote about free-market economics. Louis XIV Example of an absolute monarch. Catherine the Great Enlightened despot of Russia. Frederick the Great Enlightened ruler. Joseph II Made reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What group applied science ideas to government? The philosophes. Why did philosophes think justice systems were unfair? Punishments were cruel and laws treated social classes unequally. ⸻ Section 2 — Revolutions on Three Continents Key Vocabulary Bourgeoisie Middle class. Jacobins Radical French Revolution group. Declaration of Independence American colonies’ statement of freedom from Britain. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen French document declaring equality and rights. ⸻ Important People Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence. Louis XVI French king executed during the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte Rose to power after the French Revolution. Simón Bolívar Helped liberate Venezuela and other nations. José de San Martín Helped free South American countries from Spain. Toussaint Louverture Led Haitian independence movement. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who fought for Venezuela’s independence? Simón Bolívar Why were the Articles of Confederation replaced? The national government was too weak. ⸻ CHAPTER 25 — INDUSTRIALIZATION, NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Section 1 — Industrial Revolution Key Vocabulary Industrialize Develop factories and machines. Urbanization Growth of cities. Labor Union Workers organized for better conditions. Push-Pull Factor Reasons people leave or move to places. Socialism Government control of economy to help society. Communism Classless society where property is shared. Woman Suffrage Women’s right to vote. ⸻ Important People Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin. Karl Marx Created communist ideas. Ellis Island Main immigration station in the U.S. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Three ways Industrial Revolution changed society • More factories • Urbanization • Faster transportation • More goods produced • Growth of middle class Push factors affecting immigration • Poverty • Famine • War • Lack of jobs ⸻ Section 2 — Nationalism Around the World Key Vocabulary Nationalism Strong pride and loyalty to one’s nation. Nation-State Country with one national identity. Militarism Building up armed forces. Republic Government where citizens elect leaders. Dictator Leader with total control. ⸻ Important People Otto von Bismarck Unified Germany under Prussian leadership. Giuseppe Garibaldi Helped unify Italy. Meiji Emperor Led modernization of Japan. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Problems after Latin American independence • Political instability • Weak economies • Dictatorships • Social inequality Who unified Germany? Otto von Bismarck How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan? • Modern industry • Modern military • Western education and technology ⸻ Section 3 — The New Imperialism Key Vocabulary Imperialism Strong nations taking control of weaker regions. Direct Rule Foreign country controls government directly. Missionary Person spreading religion. Sepoy Indian soldier serving Britain. Raj British rule in India. ⸻ Important Places & Events Berlin Conference European nations divided Africa. East India Company Controlled trade and territory in India. French Indochina French-controlled region in Asia. ⸻ CHAPTER 26 — WORLD AT WAR Section 1 — World at War Key Vocabulary Alliance Agreement between countries for support. Stalemate No side can win. Trench Warfare Fighting from dug trenches. U-boat German submarine. Bolsheviks Russian revolutionary communist group. Treaty of Versailles Treaty ending WWI. Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente Britain, France, Russia. League of Nations International peace organization after WWI. ⸻ Important People Vladimir Lenin Leader of Bolsheviks. Karl Marx Inspired communist beliefs. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What triggered WWI? Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediate effect of WWI on Russia Economic hardship and revolution. Why was WWI a total war? Entire economies and civilians supported the war effort. How did Bolsheviks change Russia’s war policy? Russia withdrew from WWI. Trench warfare resulted from what technology? Machine guns and modern artillery. ⸻ Section 2 — Between the Wars Key Vocabulary Fascism Dictatorship emphasizing nationalism and obedience. Propaganda Biased information used to influence people. Reparations Payments for war damages. Totalitarian Government with total control. Inflation Rising prices and weaker money value. ⸻ Important People Adolf Hitler Leader of Nazi Germany. Benito Mussolini Leader of Fascist Italy. Franklin D. Roosevelt Led U.S. during Great Depression and WWII. Joseph Stalin Communist dictator of USSR. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Conditions caused by Great Depression • Unemployment • Poverty • Bank failures • Economic collapse What kind of dictatorships did Hitler and Mussolini create? Fascist dictatorships. ⸻ Section 3 — World War II Key Vocabulary Appeasement Giving in to avoid conflict. Blitzkrieg “Lightning war” using fast attacks. Genocide Deliberate killing of a people group. Holocaust Murder of six million Jews during WWII. Ration Limit supplies during wartime. Atomic Bomb Extremely powerful nuclear weapon. ⸻ Important Places & People Pearl Harbor Japanese attack brought U.S. into WWII. Hiroshima First atomic bomb dropped. Nagasaki Second atomic bomb dropped. Winston Churchill Led Britain during WWII. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Which event broke German defenses in the west? D-Day invasion (Normandy invasion)

American Government Power and Purpose Ch. 8

American Government: Power and Purpose Chapter 7

American Government: Power and Purpose Chapter 6

AMERICAN GOVERNMENT POWER & PURPOSE-CHAPTER 5

American Government: power and purpose chapter 4

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INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY — CHAPTERS 1–5 The Study Guide Key concepts, theories, and methods for mastering the social world Ch. 1 — Sociology Ch. 2 — Research Ch. 3 — Culture Ch. 4 — Socialization Ch. 5 — Groups 01 CHAPTER ONE Sociology and the Real World What Is Sociology? Sociology is the systematic, scientific study of human society, social relationships, and social institutions. It examines how group membership and social forces shape individual behavior, beliefs, and life chances — using the sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills) to connect personal troubles to larger historical and structural forces. Micro vs. Macro Sociology micro Microsociology Focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions: how individuals communicate, negotiate meaning, and create social reality in everyday situations. Example: a conversation between two people. macro Macrosociology Focuses on large-scale social structures, institutions, and broad patterns across societies. Example: how capitalism shapes inequality across a nation. Major Theoretical Perspectives Structural Functionalism Society is a system of interrelated parts (institutions) that each serve a function to maintain stability and order. Dysfunction disrupts equilibrium. Key figures: Durkheim, Parsons. Conflict Theory Society is characterized by competition and inequality. Those with power exploit those without; social change comes through struggle. Key figure: Marx. Weberian Theory Emphasizes the role of ideas, culture, and meaning (not just economics) in shaping social life. Introduces stratification by class, status, and party; the concept of rationalization and bureaucracy. Key figure: Weber. Symbolic Interactionism People act based on the meanings they attach to objects and others, meanings that arise through social interaction and are maintained through interpretation. Key figures: Mead, Blumer. micro Postmodernism Rejects grand narratives and universal truths; argues that reality is socially constructed, knowledge is fragmented, and power shapes what counts as truth. Skeptical of science's neutrality. Key figures: Foucault, Baudrillard. Midrange Theory Seeks to build limited, testable theories about specific phenomena rather than sweeping explanations of all of society. Bridges abstract theory and empirical research. Key figure: Merton. 02 CHAPTER TWO Studying Social Life: Research Methods Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Quantitative Uses numerical data and statistical analysis to test hypotheses and identify patterns across large samples. Examples: surveys with Likert scales, census data, experiments with control/treatment groups. Qualitative Generates rich, descriptive, non-numerical data to understand meaning, experience, and context in depth. Examples: ethnography, in-depth interviews, focus groups, content analysis of texts. Steps of the Scientific Method Identify a research problem or question Review existing literature on the topic Formulate a hypothesis (a testable prediction) Design a research methodology and collect data Analyze the data Draw conclusions and report findings (inviting replication) Six Research Methods — Strengths & Weaknesses Method Description Strengths Weaknesses Ethnography / Participant Observation Researcher immerses in a social setting to observe behavior firsthand Deep insight; captures context; reveals hidden norms Time-intensive; small scale; researcher bias; ethical issues of access Interviews Structured, semi-structured, or unstructured conversations to gather in-depth perspectives Rich qualitative detail; flexible; clarification possible Interviewer effect; social desirability bias; hard to generalize Surveys Standardized questionnaires administered to large samples Efficient; large-scale; quantifiable; cheap Superficial; question wording bias; low response rates; can't capture complexity Existing Sources Analysis of historical records, official statistics, media, documents, or prior studies Non-reactive; access to historical data; cost-effective Data may be incomplete, biased, or collected for other purposes Experiments Manipulates an independent variable in controlled conditions to measure effects Establishes causality; controls for confounds; replicable Artificial setting; ethical constraints; demand characteristics; limited scope Social Network Analysis Maps and measures relationships and information flows among individuals or groups Reveals structural patterns invisible in individual-level data; visual and quantitative Data collection is complex; boundary specification problems; privacy concerns Pitfalls & Ethical Issues Validity & Reliability: Ensuring a study measures what it claims to and produces consistent results Sampling Bias: Non-representative samples skew findings Researcher Bias: Personal values and assumptions can distort data collection and interpretation Informed Consent: Participants must voluntarily agree based on full knowledge of the study Confidentiality & Anonymity: Protecting the identities and privacy of participants Harm Prevention: Research must not expose participants to physical, psychological, or social harm Deception: Deceiving subjects (e.g., Milgram) raises serious ethical concerns even when scientifically useful 03 CHAPTER THREE Culture Defining Culture Culture is the totality of shared beliefs, values, norms, symbols, language, material objects, and practices that members of a society learn and transmit across generations. Ethnocentrism Judging another culture by the standards of one's own, viewing one's culture as superior. Can lead to misunderstanding and discrimination. Cultural Relativism Understanding a culture on its own terms, without imposing outside judgments. Promotes open-minded cross-cultural comparison. Components of Culture Symbols: Anything that carries shared meaning (flags, words, gestures) Language: The primary vehicle for transmitting culture; shapes perception (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) Values: Broad, shared standards of what is good, desirable, or important Norms: Specific rules of behavior — folkways (informal), mores (moral norms), and laws (formalized) Material Culture: Physical objects created and used by a society (tools, buildings, clothing) Non-material Culture: Intangible elements — beliefs, values, ideas, customs Subcultures & Countercultures in the U.S. A subculture shares the dominant culture's overall values but maintains distinct norms or practices. A counterculture actively opposes or rejects core values of the dominant culture. Subcultures: LGBTQ+ communities Amish communities Hip-hop culture Gamer culture College Greek life Countercultures: 1960s hippie movement Militia movements Punk movement Anti-consumerism groups Processes of Cultural Change Discovery: Recognizing and understanding something previously unknown Invention: Creating new tools, ideas, or social patterns Diffusion: Spreading cultural elements from one culture to another Cultural Imperialism: Dominant cultures overpower or displace local ones (often via media or globalization) Acculturation: A minority group adopts elements of a dominant culture 04 CHAPTER FOUR Socialization, Interaction, and the Self Nature vs. Nurture Human behavior is shaped by both genetics (biological predispositions, temperament) and social environment (culture, interaction, learning). Sociologists emphasize that even traits with biological bases are expressed and interpreted through social contexts. Studies of feral children and cases of extreme isolation demonstrate that human potential requires social interaction to develop. Socialization & Social Isolation Socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to their society. Cases of social isolation (e.g., children raised in severely deprived environments) show that without social contact, children fail to develop language, emotional regulation, and basic cognitive skills — demonstrating that the "self" is fundamentally social in origin. Theories of the Self Cooley — "Looking-Glass Self" We develop our self-concept by imagining how others perceive us, then internalizing those imagined judgments. The self is a reflection of social feedback. Mead — "I" and "Me" The self has two parts: the spontaneous I and the socialized Me. Through play and games, children learn to take on the role of others and internalize the "generalized other" (society's expectations). Goffman — Dramaturgical Model Social life is like a theatrical performance. We manage impressions in "front stage" behavior and relax norms "backstage." The self is a performance, not a fixed essence. Agents of Socialization Family: The primary agent; instills foundational values, language, and identity from birth Schools: Teach not only academic skills but the "hidden curriculum" — punctuality, obedience, competition Peer Groups: Increasingly important in adolescence; shape attitudes, norms, and sense of belonging outside family Media: Pervasive shaper of cultural norms, gender roles, beauty standards, and political attitudes Statuses, Roles, and Role Conflict Ascribed status: Assigned at birth, involuntary (race, sex, birth order) Achieved status: Earned through effort or choice (occupation, education) Master status: One status that overrides all others (e.g., felon, celebrity) Role conflict: Occurs when incompatible demands arise from two different statuses (e.g., parent vs. employee) Role strain: Tension within a single role when its demands are contradictory (e.g., a manager who must be both friend and disciplinarian) 05 CHAPTER FIVE Separate and Together: Life in Groups Primary vs. Secondary Groups Primary Groups Small, intimate, emotionally close groups with enduring relationships. Members value the relationship for its own sake. Examples: family, close friends, a tight-knit sports team. Secondary Groups Larger, more impersonal, and goal-oriented. Relationships are instrumental. Examples: a workplace, a university class, a professional association. Group Size, Cohesion, Prejudice & Discrimination Dyads (2 people): Most intimate but fragile — collapses if one leaves Triads (3 people): More stable; coalitions can form; a third party can mediate or divide Larger groups: Greater stability but less intimacy; formalization of rules becomes necessary Cohesion: High cohesion strengthens commitment and performance but can lead to groupthink In-groups & Out-groups: Defining "us" vs. "them" fuels prejudice (negative attitudes) and discrimination (unequal treatment) against out-group members Social Influence & Conformity — Three Classic Experiments Asch Conformity Studies (1950s) Participants gave obviously wrong answers on a line-comparison task when confederates unanimously did so first — showing powerful pressure to conform even when the correct answer was clear. Milgram Obedience Studies (1960s) Participants administered what they believed to be dangerous electric shocks on an authority figure's orders — revealing alarming levels of obedience to legitimate authority. Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) College students assigned roles of "guard" or "prisoner" quickly conformed to those roles so intensely the study had to be stopped — illustrating how situational context shapes behavior. Group Composition & Leadership Diversity: Diverse groups tend to produce more creative solutions but can experience more conflict initially Leadership styles: Authoritarian (top-down, efficient in crisis); Democratic (collaborative, higher satisfaction); Laissez-faire (minimal direction, works with highly self-motivated groups) Instrumental leaders focus on task completion; expressive leaders maintain group morale and cohesion Bureaucracy & McDonaldization Bureaucracy (Weber) is a formal organization characterized by a clear hierarchy of authority, written rules and procedures, specialization of labor, and impersonality. It is the dominant organizational form of modern society. McDonaldization (Ritzer) extends Weber's rationalization thesis: modern society increasingly organizes social life around four principles modeled on fast food — efficiency (the optimal method), calculability (emphasis on quantity over quality), predictability (standardized outcomes), and control (substituting technology for human judgment). The irony: the rational system produces irrational outcomes (e.g., dehumanization, loss of creativity, homogenization of culture)

PUBPOL 101: Weeks 7-14 Final Review

Q1: Methodological Application – Mapping 3D Genomic Architecture You are investigating a novel transcription factor (TF) and wish to distinguish its direct DNA binding sites from its indirect 3D contact sites (where it interacts with distant loci via looping). Based on the strategies described in the CUT&RUN research and Hi-C protocols, propose an experimental workflow using two distinct methodologies to map these interactions at near base-pair resolution. Why is traditional X-ChIP-seq insufficient for making this specific distinction?

non-charitable purpose trusts cases

[SA2-Summative] Summative Assessment 2 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

PURPOSIVE COM MIDTERM EXAM Reviewer

IKT218 prøveeksamen handler i stor grad om hvordan operativsystemer fungerer, hvordan x86-arkitekturen er bygget opp, hvordan minne styres, hvordan interrupts fungerer, og hvordan sentrale systemkomponenter som GDT, IDT, PIC og PIT brukes. For å forstå eksamen godt må man først forstå de grunnleggende byggesteinene. Et operativsystem er hovedprogrammet som styrer hele datamaskinen. Det fungerer som mellomledd mellom brukerprogrammer og maskinvaren. Programmer som Chrome, Spotify eller et tekstredigeringsprogram kommuniserer vanligvis ikke direkte med CPU, RAM eller harddisk. I stedet bruker de operativsystemet, som organiserer ressurser, fordeler prosessortid, styrer minne, håndterer filer og kommuniserer med hardware via drivere. Operativsystemets viktigste rolle er altså å styre systemets ressurser på en sikker og organisert måte. Når et program kjører, kalles det en prosess. En prosess er altså et aktivt program i kjørende tilstand. Hvis et program bare ligger lagret på harddisken, er det bare en fil, men når det åpnes og bruker systemressurser, blir det en prosess. Hver prosess får sitt eget minneområde og sine egne ressurser, slik at prosesser holdes adskilt fra hverandre. Dette gjør systemet mer stabilt, fordi ett program normalt ikke skal kunne ødelegge et annet. Multitasking betyr at operativsystemet kan håndtere flere prosesser samtidig. Hvis man for eksempel har både nettleser, musikkprogram og kodeeditor åpne samtidig, håndterer operativsystemet flere prosesser parallelt ved å bytte raskt mellom dem. Multithreading betyr derimot at én enkelt prosess kan ha flere tråder, altså flere arbeidsoppgaver, som kjører samtidig innenfor samme program. For eksempel kan en nettleser ha én tråd som spiller video, én som håndterer lyd og én som registrerer tastaturinput. System calls er en sentral del av operativsystemet. System calls er grensesnittet mellom brukerprogrammer og operativsystemet. Når et program ønsker å lese en fil, skrive til disk eller bruke hardware, må det be operativsystemet om dette gjennom system calls. Dette gir sikkerhet og kontroll fordi programmer ikke får fri direkte tilgang til hele maskinen. Device drivers, eller enhetsdrivere, er programvare som lar operativsystemet kommunisere med hardware. Uten drivere ville ikke operativsystemet forstå hvordan det skal snakke med tastatur, skjerm, harddisk eller andre enheter. Driveren fungerer som en oversetter mellom operativsystemet og den fysiske enheten. Minnehåndtering er også et hovedtema. Operativsystemet må fordele minne til programmer, beskytte minnet og bruke det effektivt. Dette gjøres blant annet gjennom paging, segmentation og virtual memory. Paging deler minnet inn i sider, segmentation deler det inn i segmenter med regler og grenser, mens virtual memory lar programmer bruke virtuelle adresser som operativsystemet oversetter til faktiske fysiske adresser i RAM. Virtual memory gir bedre sikkerhet, bedre organisering og gjør at systemet kan håndtere minne mer fleksibelt. I x86-arkitektur starter systemet i real mode. Real mode er en enkel 16-bits modus med direkte tilgang til fysisk minne og lite beskyttelse. Dette brukes typisk under oppstart. Protected mode er mer avansert og brukes i moderne systemer. Protected mode gir 32-bits funksjonalitet, minnebeskyttelse, virtual memory og tilgangskontroll. Overgangen fra real mode til protected mode er en viktig del av systemoppstart og OS-utvikling. CPU-en bruker registers, som er små og svært raske lagringsplasser inni prosessoren. General-purpose registers som EAX, EBX, ECX og EDX brukes til generell databehandling. Segment registers som CS, DS og SS brukes til segmentering, mens control registers som CR0 og CR3 brukes til kontroll av CPU-modus og minnestyring. For eksempel brukes CR0 til å aktivere protected mode. GDT, eller Global Descriptor Table, er en systemomfattende tabell som beskriver minnesegmenter. Den inneholder informasjon som base address, limit, access rights og granularity. GDT brukes for å definere hvordan minneområder skal brukes og beskyttes. LDT, eller Local Descriptor Table, fungerer lignende, men er knyttet til én spesifikk oppgave eller prosess. IDT, eller Interrupt Descriptor Table, brukes derimot til interrupts. IDT forteller CPU-en hvilken kode som skal kjøres når et interrupt eller en exception oppstår. Interrupts er signaler som forteller CPU-en at noe krever oppmerksomhet. Hardware interrupts kommer fra hardware, som tastatur eller mus. Software interrupts kommer fra programmer. IRQ, Interrupt Request, er selve forespørselen fra hardware. Når et tastatur registrerer et tastetrykk, sendes for eksempel en IRQ. ISR, Interrupt Service Routine, er koden som faktisk kjøres som respons på interruptet. PIC, Programmable Interrupt Controller, håndterer og prioriterer interrupts fra flere hardware-enheter før de sendes videre til CPU-en. Dette gjør at systemet kan organisere hvilke interrupts som skal behandles først. PIT, Programmable Interval Timer, er systemets timer. PIT genererer periodiske interrupts som brukes til klokke, timing og task scheduling. Dette er avgjørende for at operativsystemet skal kunne holde styr på tid og fordele CPU-tid mellom oppgaver. Når det gjelder minne i programmering, er stack og heap sentrale begreper. Stack brukes hovedsakelig til lokale variabler og funksjonskall, og styres automatisk. Heap brukes til dynamisk minneallokering, som malloc og calloc i C, og må styres mer manuelt. Hvis et program allokerer minne på heapen, men ikke frigjør det, kan det oppstå memory leaks. Compiler og linker er også viktige. Compiler oversetter kildekode til object code eller machine code. Linker kombinerer object files og biblioteker til ett ferdig kjørbart program. Static linking betyr at bibliotekkode bygges inn i programmet ved kompilering, mens dynamic linking betyr at biblioteker kobles til under runtime. C preprocessor er et tidlig steg i C-kompilering og håndterer blant annet #include, #define og conditional compilation før selve kompileringen skjer. I kodegjenkjenning er det spesielt viktig å kjenne igjen GDT-strukturer. Hvis man ser felt som limit_low, base_low, base_middle, access, granularity og base_high, handler det svært sannsynlig om oppsett av en GDT entry. For denne prøveeksamenen er det spesielt viktig å kunne forklare forskjellen mellom multitasking og multithreading, real mode og protected mode, GDT og IDT, hardware og software interrupts, stack og heap, samt static og dynamic linking. Kort oppsummert tester denne eksamenen forståelse av hvordan et operativsystem organiserer programmer, minne, hardware og CPU gjennom strukturerte mekanismer. Kjernen er operativsystemets rolle, x86-moduser, minnehåndtering, descriptor tables, interrupts og systemtiming. Hvis man forstår hvordan disse delene henger sammen som et samlet system, blir både multiple choice-spørsmål og kodeoppgaver langt lettere å forstå

Caricom Organisations and Purposes