QUIZ #1 — POWER NOTES
1. Normative vs. Positive Political Science
Normative = what SHOULD be.
* Based on values, beliefs, and opinions.
* Asks: “What should the government do?”
Positive = what IS.
* Based on evidence and observable facts.
* Asks: “What actually happens?”
Easy memory trick:
👉 Normative = “should”
👉 Positive = “is”
Example:
* “The government should provide free college.” → Normative
* “States that spend more on education have higher graduation rates.” → Positive
⸻
2. Approaches in Political Science
An approach is basically a particular way of looking at politics.
Know these:
Rational Choice
* Assumes people make decisions based on their interests and preferences.
* People weigh costs and benefits.
Behavioralism
* Focuses on observable political behavior.
* Looks at things like voting, public opinion, participation, etc.
* Uses evidence/data to study behavior.
Institutionalism
* Focuses on institutions and rules.
* Institutions can shape how people behave and what political outcomes happen.
Constructivism
* Focuses on how ideas, beliefs, identities, and social norms shape politics.
Feminist approach
* Examines how gender and power relationships affect politics.
Normative approach
* Focuses on questions about values, justice, rights, and what government ought to do.
⸻
3. Methodologies
Methodology = how political scientists study something.
Two big categories:
Quantitative
* Uses numbers and statistics.
* Example: Surveying 5,000 voters and analyzing their responses.
Qualitative
* Uses words, observations, interviews, documents, or detailed cases.
* Example: Interviewing voters to understand why they support a candidate.
If the professor says:
“Describe one methodology.”
You can say:
Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical analysis to identify patterns or relationships.
That’s a solid answer. 👏
⸻
4. Theory
A theory is an explanation of how or why something happens.
It helps political scientists:
* organize information
* explain political behavior
* make predictions that can be tested
Example:
A theory might explain why some people are more likely to vote than others.
⚠️ A theory in science does NOT mean “just a guess.”
⸻
5. Transaction Costs
Transaction costs = the time, effort, and resources required to reach an agreement or make a decision.
Think:
“How hard/expensive is it to get everyone to agree?”
Example:
If 500 people have to agree on one decision, getting everyone together, discussing the issue, and reaching an agreement creates transaction costs.
Conformity Costs
Conformity costs = the costs people face when they have to accept a decision they don’t personally prefer.
Example:
A group votes 8–2 to raise a fee.
The two people who voted against it still have to pay it.
👉 That’s a conformity cost.
⸻
6. Formal vs. Informal Institutions
Formal institutions
= Official rules and organizations.
Examples:
* Constitution
* Congress
* Courts
* Laws
* Government agencies
Informal institutions
= Unwritten rules, norms, traditions, and expectations.
Examples:
* Political traditions
* Social expectations
* Unwritten customs
* Norms about how politicians are expected to behave
Easy memory trick:
👉 Formal = written/official
👉 Informal = unwritten/social
⸻
7. Overcoming Collective Action Problems
Collective action problem = when individuals would benefit from working together, but each person has a reason NOT to participate.
Example:
Everyone wants a cleaner campus.
But each student thinks:
“Why should I pick up trash? Other people can do it.”
That’s the problem.
Ways institutions can help:
* Incentives → reward people for participating
* Penalties → punish people who don’t participate
* Rules → require participation
* Leadership/organization → coordinate people
* Selective incentives → give specific benefits to people who participate
⭐ Important:
Free rider problem = someone benefits from a group effort without helping pay or participate.
⸻
8. Institutional Design
Institutional design = creating rules and procedures that determine how political decisions are made.
Basically:
Who gets to do what, and what rules do they have to follow?
Two important examples:
Veto Power
Veto power = the ability to stop or block a decision.
Example:
The president can veto legislation passed by Congress.
Agenda Control
Agenda control = the ability to decide which issues or proposals get considered.
Basically:
“What are we even going to talk about?”
Someone who controls the agenda can influence which proposals get attention.
⸻
9. Checks and Balances
Checks and balances = each branch of government has powers that can limit the other branches.
The three branches:
🏛️ Legislative — Congress
* Makes laws
⚖️ Judicial — Courts
* Interprets laws
🏠 Executive — President
* Enforces laws
Examples:
Congress → President
* Congress passes bills
* Congress can override a presidential veto with enough votes
President → Congress
* President can veto bills
Courts → Congress/President
* Courts can declare government actions unconstitutional
President → Courts
* President nominates federal judges, subject to Senate confirmation
Congress → Courts
* Senate confirms federal judges
* Congress controls federal funding and can change the structure/jurisdiction of lower federal courts within constitutional limits
Main idea:
No single branch is supposed to have unlimited power.
⸻
🇺🇸 10. Articles of Confederation
THIS ONE IS IMPORTANT.
The Articles of Confederation were the first governing framework of the United States, used before the Constitution.
The biggest problem:
The national government was TOO WEAK.
Under the Articles:
* Congress had limited power
* There was no separate executive branch
* There was no national judicial branch
* Congress couldn’t directly tax citizens
* The national government had difficulty enforcing decisions
* States retained a lot of power
Why was this a problem?
The national government had trouble:
* raising money
* paying debts
* regulating commerce
* responding effectively to national problems
This helped lead to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and eventually the Constitution.
⭐ Remember this:
Articles of Confederation = weak national government
Constitution = stronger national government with checks and balances
⸻
🧠 THE STUFF I WOULD MEMORIZE FIRST
If you’re short on time, memorize these:
Normative = what SHOULD be.
Positive = what IS.
Rational choice = people make choices based on interests/costs and benefits.
Behavioralism = studies observable political behavior.
Quantitative = numbers/statistics.
Qualitative = words, interviews, observations, cases.
Theory = explanation of how/why something happens.
Transaction costs = costs of reaching an agreement.
Conformity costs = costs of accepting an outcome you don’t prefer.
Formal institutions = official/written rules.
Informal institutions = unwritten rules/norms.
Collective action problem = difficulty getting people to work together.
Free rider = gets the benefit without contributing.
Veto power = ability to block a decision.
Agenda control = ability to decide what gets considered.
Checks and balances = branches limit each other’s power.
Articles of Confederation = weak national government.
🔥 One-sentence version of the whole quiz:
Political scientists study politics using different approaches and methods, while political institutions create rules that help people overcome collective-action problems, control costs, distribute power, and prevent any one part of government from becoming too powerful.
10
