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Chapter 5 – States of Consciousness 1. Consciousness is the awareness of internal and external events being experienced at a given moment. 2. Waking consciousness: Normal awareness of yourself and your surroundings. Altered states: Changes in awareness, such as dreaming, meditation, hypnosis, or drug effects. 3. Altered states occur through: Sleep and dreaming Meditation and hypnosis Psychoactive drugs Sensory deprivation Fatigue 4. Stages of sleep: NREM 1: Light sleep; easily awakened. NREM 2: Deeper sleep; heart rate and body temperature decrease. NREM 3: Deep sleep; body restoration. REM: Vivid dreams, active brain, temporary muscle paralysis. 5. About how long does a complete cycle of sleep take? 90 minutes 6. Sleep deprivation results in permanent negative effects. False. Many effects improve with adequate sleep, although prolonged sleep deprivation can cause serious problems. 7. Forgetting is an important human function. True. It helps prevent information overload. 8. Night terrors happen during deep sleep and are often not remembered; nightmares are frightening dreams that are usually remembered. 9. Staying up all night studying is a good idea. False. Sleep helps memory and learning. 10. Why do humans sleep? To restore the body, conserve energy, support brain function, and strengthen memories. 11. Three main theories of dreaming: Wish-fulfillment theory Information-processing theory Physiological-function theory 12. Latent content; manifest content. 13. Insomnia 14. Sleep apnea 15. Circadian rhythms 16. Meditation is a learned technique for relaxation and focused attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. Long-term practice can improve health. 17. Drug categories: Psychoactive drugs: Drugs that affect consciousness, mood, perception, or behavior. Addictive drugs: Drugs that can lead to compulsive use. Stimulants: Drugs that increase nervous system activity. Depressants: Drugs that slow nervous system activity. Narcotics: Drugs, especially opioids, that relieve pain. Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception and sensory experiences. 18. Alcohol is safer than other drugs. False 19. Drug dependence is best explained by personality and willpower. False 20. Psychedelic drugs. Chapter 6 – Learning 1. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. 2. Two types of conditioning: Classical conditioning — Ivan Pavlov: Learning by associating two stimuli. Operant conditioning — B. F. Skinner: Learning through consequences. 3. Matching: D — A once-neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus. B — Naturally brings about a response. A — A stimulus that initially does not bring about the response. E — A response that follows a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning. C — A reflexive response that needs no training. 4. Conditioned = learned Unconditioned = unlearned or natural 5. Previously neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. 6. Pavlov’s experiment: Pavlov rang a bell before giving dogs food. After repeated pairings, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone. 7. Variables: Before conditioning Neutral stimulus: Bell → Neutral response: No salivation Unconditioned stimulus: Food → Unconditioned response: Salivation During conditioning - Neutral stimulus: Bell + Unconditioned stimulus: Food → Unconditioned response: Salivation After conditioning - Conditioned stimulus: Bell → Conditioned response: Salivation 8. Extinction 9. Spontaneous recovery 10. Generalization vs. discrimination: Generalization: Responding similarly to similar stimuli; example: salivating to similar tones. Discrimination: Responding differently to distinct stimuli; example: salivating only to the specific tone associated with food. 11. Dopamine 12. Classical or operant: Voluntary behaviors: Operant Involuntary behaviors: Classical Ivan Pavlov: Classical B. F. Skinner: Operant Dogs salivating at a bell: Classical Rats pressing a lever for food: Operant 13. In operant conditioning, learning happens when a voluntary response is reinforced or punished by its consequences. 14. An organism’s behavior and its environment. 15. True or False: True — Responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. False — Environment has little influence on behavior. False — Conditioning cannot be applied to humans. False — Positive and negative mean good and bad. 16. Thorndike’s law of effect. 17. Matching: Positive: Addition of a stimulus Negative: Removal of a stimulus Reinforcement: Leads to an increase in behavior Punishment: Leads to a decrease in behavior 18. Definitions and examples: Positive reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase behavior; getting paid for working. Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior; buckling a seat belt to stop a warning beep. Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior; receiving extra chores for breaking a rule. Negative punishment: Removing something desirable to decrease behavior; losing video game privileges. 19. Reinforcement schedules: D — Reinforcer delivered every 5 minutes. B — Reinforcer after every 5 responses. E — Reinforcer after an unknown or changing amount of time. C — Reinforcer after an unknown or changing number of responses. A — Reinforcer every time the behavior occurs. 20. Ratio schedules depend on: Number of responses 21. Interval schedules depend on: Amount of time 22. Fixed vs. variable: Fixed schedules are predictable; variable schedules change. 23. Shaping Example: Teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding each step toward the behavior. 24. Cognitive learning theory. 25. Latent learning; a new behavior is not demonstrated until there is a reason or motivation to use what was learned. 26. Cognitive map 27. A mental map of my school, home, and familiar roads. 28. Observing; observational learning; Bobo doll experiment. 29. Mirror neurons Chapter 7 – Memory 1. Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. 2. Three basic memory processes: Encoding: Taking in information. Storage: Keeping information over time. Retrieval: Accessing stored information. 3. Sensory memory → Short-term memory → Long-term memory. 4. Matching: C — Holds information while actively manipulating or rehearsing it. A — Briefly holds incoming sensory information. B — Holds information for around 15–25 seconds. D — Stores information relatively permanently. 5. Rehearsal keeps information active and helps it enter long-term memory. Elaborative rehearsal connects information to meaning and prior knowledge, while simple rehearsal repeats it. 6. Types of long-term memory: Lafayette is in Louisiana: Semantic First week of college: Episodic Riding a bicycle: Procedural 7. Explicit (declarative) memory. 8. Retrieval failure 9. Recall vs. recognition: Recall: Remembering an answer without choices, such as a fill-in-the-blank question. Recognition: Identifying an answer among choices, such as a multiple-choice question. Chapter 8 – Cognition and Language 1. Cognition 2. Concepts; a prototype is the most typical example of a concept. 3. Category: Furniture. Prototype: Chair Less typical member: Beanbag chair 4. Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions. Examples: Deductive: All humans need sleep. I am human, so I need sleep. Inductive: Several students who study regularly earn good grades, so studying may help students earn good grades. 5. Matching: A — A strategy that guarantees a solution. B — A mental shortcut that can lead to errors. C — Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. D — Preferring an option because it is familiar. E — Giving more weight to outcomes closer to the present. 6. Confirmation bias 7. Problem-solving steps: Identify and define the problem. Develop and evaluate possible solutions. Implement a solution and evaluate the results. 8. Well-defined vs. ill-defined: Well-defined: Clear goal and rules; example: solving a math equation. Ill-defined: Unclear goal or multiple solutions; example: choosing a career. 9. Subgoaling 10. Functional fixedness 11. Convergent thinking narrows ideas to one correct answer. Divergent thinking generates many possible ideas. 12. Example of insight: Realizing you can stand on a chair to reach a high shelf. It depends on reorganizing your understanding of a problem. 13. Language is communication through symbols arranged according to systematic rules. 14. Nativist approach; language acquisition device (LAD). 15. Interactionist approach; biological predispositions and environmental circumstances. Final reflection These last answers are personal, so change them if they don't describe you. How prepared do you feel? 3 Three concepts most confident in: Classical conditioning Types of memory Reinforcement and punishment Three concepts least confident in: Stages of sleep Reinforcement schedules Reasoning and problem solving How will you strengthen your understanding? I plan to review my study guide, practice questions, and spend more time on the concepts I don't understand.