Nathaniel Hawthorne pieces: "The Minister's Black Veil" & "Young Goodman Brown"

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe Short Stories Review

demenet and kleitman study

1. Exploration & Native Americans Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. Wanted to find a western route to Asia. Reached the Caribbean instead. His voyages began sustained European contact with the Americas. Led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Conquistadores Spanish explorers/conquerors who sought gold, land, and converts. Helped Spain conquer large Native American empires. Often used military force and alliances with rival Native groups. Mayas, Incas, Aztecs Major civilizations in the Americas before European conquest. Aztecs: centered in Mexico; conquered by Cortés. Incas: centered in the Andes/South America; conquered by Pizarro. Mayas: Central America; famous for cities, writing, mathematics, and astronomy. Hernando Cortés Spanish conquistador. Conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519–1521. Defeated Montezuma/Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlán. Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire. Operated in present-day Peru. Montezuma Aztec ruler when Cortés arrived. Also called Moctezuma II. His empire was eventually conquered by Cortés and his allies. Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who explored the southeastern part of what became the United States. His expedition encountered Native peoples and reached the Mississippi River. Francisco de Coronado Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest and Great Plains. Searched for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River. His voyages helped France establish claims in North America. John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England. Explored the North Atlantic coast of North America in 1497. Helped England establish a claim to North American territory. Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who supported exploration. Helped Portugal develop navigation and sailing technology. Portuguese exploration contributed to the development of the Atlantic slave trade. ⸻ 2. Spanish, French & English Colonization Joint-stock company A company where investors pool money to fund a business. Why important: English colonies such as Virginia were partly financed through joint-stock companies. Virginia Company English joint-stock company. Founded Jamestown in 1607. Investors hoped to make money from the colony. Jamestown First permanent English settlement in North America, 1607. Located in Virginia. Suffered from disease, starvation, conflict, and poor leadership. Tobacco eventually helped make the colony profitable. Tidewater Coastal area of Virginia and surrounding colonies. Early English settlements were concentrated here. Piedmont Inland region between the Tidewater/coastal plain and Appalachian Mountains. Settlement expanded into this area as colonies grew. Coureurs de bois French “runners of the woods.” French colonists/traders who lived and traveled among Native Americans. Participated heavily in the fur trade. Samuel de Champlain French explorer. Founded Quebec in 1608. Known as the “Father of New France.” Developed alliances with Native Americans. ⸻ 3. Roanoke & Early Virginia Sir Walter Raleigh English supporter of colonization. Sponsored the attempted settlement at Roanoke. Roanoke English colony established in the 1580s. Eventually disappeared. Called the “Lost Colony.” John Smith Leader at Jamestown. Helped organize the settlement and enforce discipline. Famous for his relationship with Pocahontas, although later accounts are disputed. “Starving Time” Winter of 1609–1610 at Jamestown. Colonists experienced extreme hunger, disease, and death. Demonstrated how difficult early colonization was. John Rolfe Helped make Virginia economically successful by growing tobacco. Married Pocahontas. Tobacco became Virginia’s major cash crop. Headright system Colonists received land for bringing people to Virginia. Encouraged immigration. Helped create large plantations and contributed to social/economic inequality. Freeman A colonist who possessed certain political rights, including the ability to participate in government. Political rights were generally limited to certain white male colonists. House of Burgesses Created in Virginia in 1619. First representative legislative assembly in the English colonies. Important development in colonial self-government. 1618 reforms of the Virginia Company The Virginia Company changed its policies to attract settlers and make Virginia successful. Included: More representative government. Greater incentives for settlers. Expansion of land ownership. Greater economic opportunity. Result: Virginia became more attractive to settlers. ⸻ 4. Puritans & Religion John Calvin Protestant religious thinker. Developed Calvinism. Believed in predestination. Predestination The belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Puritanism Protestant movement that wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritans believed the English church still contained too many Catholic practices. Separatists Puritans who believed the Church of England could not be reformed. Wanted to separate completely from it. The Pilgrims were Separatists. Non-Separatist Puritans Wanted to reform the Church of England rather than leave it completely. Many settled Massachusetts Bay. Pilgrims Separatist Puritans. Settled at Plymouth in 1620. Signed the Mayflower Compact. Mayflower Compact Agreement signed by Plymouth settlers. Established self-government based on majority rule. Important early example of colonial self-government. Plymouth Colony founded by Pilgrims in 1620. Later became part of Massachusetts. William Bradford Pilgrim leader and governor of Plymouth. Helped maintain the colony. Wrote about Plymouth’s early history. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded by Puritans in 1630. Much larger than Plymouth. Centered around Boston. Governed according to Puritan religious beliefs. John Winthrop Governor of Massachusetts Bay. Described Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill.” “City upon a hill” Winthrop’s idea that Massachusetts should serve as an example of a successful Christian society to the world. Covenant A religious agreement between God and a community. Puritans believed their communities had a special covenant with God. “Visible saints” Puritans who demonstrated that they had received God’s grace and were considered members of the church. “Invisible saints” Those believed to have God’s grace/salvation, even though humans could not truly know who was saved. “Saving grace” The belief that God’s grace could lead a person to salvation. ⸻ 5. New England Religious Conflicts Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who challenged Massachusetts religious leaders. Believed faith/grace was more important than following religious rules. Put on trial and banished from Massachusetts. Shows the limits of religious tolerance in Massachusetts. Roger Williams Founded Rhode Island. Believed in: Religious freedom Separation of church and government Fairer treatment of Native Americans Banished from Massachusetts. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639. Established a representative government in Connecticut. Often considered one of the first written constitutions in America. King Philip’s War 1675–1676. Major conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans led by Metacom, whom colonists called King Philip. Resulted in enormous destruction and loss of Native American land and power. Toleration Act of 1649 Maryland law granting religious toleration to Christians. Intended especially to protect Catholics. Important early example of religious toleration, although it was limited. ⸻ 6. Massachusetts Education Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 Required towns to establish schools when they reached certain population sizes. Why? Puritans wanted people to be able to read the Bible. Important: Shows how strongly education and religion were connected in Puritan society. ⸻ 7. Colonial Regions New England Colonies Examples: Massachusetts Plymouth Connecticut Rhode Island New Hampshire Important characteristics Religious motivations Puritan influence Small farms Town-centered communities Fishing Shipbuilding Lumber Commerce Less suitable climate for large cash-crop plantations ⸻ Middle Colonies Examples: New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Important characteristics Religious diversity More ethnic diversity Fertile farmland Grain production Large ports Trade Cities such as New York and Philadelphia ⸻ Southern Colonies Examples: Virginia Maryland North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Important characteristics Plantation agriculture Tobacco, rice, indigo Slavery Large landowners Warm climate Greater social/economic inequality ⸻ 8. Types of Colonies Corporate colony Colony controlled by a company. Example: Virginia originally operated under the Virginia Company. Royal colony Controlled directly by the English king. Governor appointed by the king. Proprietary colony Granted by the king to an individual or group. Proprietor had significant control. Example: Pennsylvania → William Penn Charter of Liberties Early New York document providing certain rights and outlining representative government. Associated with efforts to establish political participation in the colony. ⸻ 9. William Penn & Quakers William Penn Quaker. Founded Pennsylvania. Wanted a colony based on religious tolerance. Had relatively peaceful relationships with Native Americans. Quakers / Society of Friends Protestant religious group. Believed in spiritual equality. Rejected many traditional church structures. Supported religious tolerance. Women had greater religious participation than in many other colonial communities. George Calvert Also known as Lord Baltimore. Catholic Englishman. Received land that became Maryland. Wanted a place where Catholics could practice their religion more freely. ⸻ 10. Georgia James Oglethorpe Founded Georgia in 1732. Intended Georgia partly as a buffer against Spanish Florida. Also wanted to create opportunities for poor English people. ⸻ 11. Pennsylvania & New York Patroonship Dutch system in New Netherland. Large land grants were given to wealthy individuals called patroons. Encouraged large estates. Quitrent A fee/rent paid to a proprietor for use of land. Common in proprietary colonies. ⸻ 12. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion 1676 Virginia. Nathaniel Bacon led settlers against Native Americans and Virginia’s government. Bacon’s followers believed Governor Berkeley was not protecting frontier settlers. Why important? Exposed class tensions between wealthy planters and poorer colonists. Afterward, Virginia increasingly relied on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. ⸻ 13. Colonial Social Classes Indentured servants Europeans who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America. After their contract ended, they could become free. Freedom dues Things given to indentured servants when their contract ended. Could include: Clothing Tools Land or supplies Redemptioners European immigrants who agreed to work for a period of time after arriving in America to pay off transportation costs. ⸻ 14. Slavery Chattel slavery System in which enslaved people were treated legally as property. Slavery became hereditary. Enslaved people had extremely limited/no legal freedom. Middle Passage Forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. Part of the triangular trade. Conditions were extremely overcrowded and deadly. Slave codes Laws restricting the rights and freedoms of enslaved people. They often: Prevented movement. Restricted education. Restricted assembly. Defined enslaved people as property. Made slavery hereditary. ⸻ 15. Stono Rebellion Stono Rebellion 1739, South Carolina. Enslaved Africans rebelled and attempted to escape toward Spanish Florida. Colonial authorities eventually suppressed the rebellion. Why important? Led to even stricter slave laws. ⸻ 16. Triangular Trade A trading system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Simplified: Europe → Africa Manufactured goods Africa → Americas Enslaved Africans Americas → Europe Sugar Tobacco Rice Other raw materials ⸻ 17. Mercantilism Economic theory used by European empires. Basic idea: Colonies exist to benefit the mother country. England wanted colonies to: Supply raw materials. Buy English manufactured goods. Increase England’s wealth. Strengthen England’s economy. ⸻ 18. Navigation Acts English laws regulating colonial trade. They required much colonial trade to: Use English ships. Pass through English-controlled channels. Benefit England. Goal: strengthen mercantilism. ⸻ 19. Molasses Act 1733 Taxed foreign molasses imported into British colonies. Designed to protect British sugar producers in the Caribbean. Colonists often avoided or resisted the tax through smuggling. Woolens Act Restricted colonial production/trade of woolen goods. Intended to protect English manufacturers. Hat Act Restricted colonial production/export of hats. Another example of Britain controlling colonial manufacturing. Iron Act Encouraged production of certain raw iron products in the colonies but restricted production of finished iron goods. Britain wanted colonies to supply raw materials while buying manufactured products from Britain. BIG IDEA: These laws show mercantilism and British attempts to control colonial economies. ⸻ 20. Dominion of New England Dominion of New England Created by King James II in 1686. Combined several New England colonies under one government. Why? Increase royal control. Enforce Navigation Acts. Reduce colonial self-government. Sir Edmund Andros Royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Strongly enforced royal policies. Very unpopular with many colonists. ⸻ 21. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution — 1688 English people and Parliament removed James II. William and Mary became monarchs. Increased the power of Parliament. Colonial effect: Colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England government. Sir Edmund Andros was removed. Colonists regained some self-government. ⸻ 22. Political Deference Political deference The belief that ordinary people should respect and defer to wealthy, powerful, or socially prominent leaders. Colonial society was often hierarchical. ⸻ 23. Lower House of the Legislature The elected part of a colonial legislature representing ordinary property-owning colonists. Examples: House of Burgesses Colonial assemblies Important: These assemblies helped establish the tradition of representative government. ⸻ 24. The Great Awakening Great Awakening Religious revival movement in the 1730s–1740s. Preachers emphasized: Personal faith Emotional religious experiences Salvation Individual relationships with God It challenged established churches and religious authorities. Jonathan Edwards Famous Great Awakening preacher. Known for the sermon: “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Emphasized God’s power and the need for conversion. George Whitefield Extremely popular traveling preacher. Preached throughout the colonies. Helped spread the Great Awakening. Old Lights People who supported traditional, established religious practices. New Lights People who supported the emotional revival-style religion of the Great Awakening. Baptists Protestant group that grew during the Great Awakening. Emphasized personal faith and baptism. Helped increase religious diversity. ⸻ 25. John Peter Zenger John Peter Zenger New York printer/journalist. Put on trial for criticizing the colonial governor. His lawyer argued that truthful statements should not be considered libel. Why important? His trial became an important symbol associated with freedom of the press. ⸻ 26. Maryland & Carolina Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina Document associated with governing Carolina. Created a hierarchical political/social structure. Helped establish an aristocratic plantation society. Slavery became increasingly important in Carolina. Established churches A government-supported official church. In some colonies, taxes helped support the established church. Important contrast: Established churches = government + religion connected. Rhode Island/Pennsylvania = greater religious freedom. ⸻ 27. Great Migration Great Migration, 1630–1643 Large migration of English Puritans to Massachusetts Bay and other New England colonies. Why? Religious motivations Political/religious conflict in England Desire to build Puritan communities Important: This was different from the much later Great Migration of African Americans during the 20th century. ⸻ 28. Enclosure Movement Enclosure Movement In England, landowners enclosed common lands and combined small fields into larger private farms. Effect: Some small farmers lost access to land. Increased movement of people toward cities and overseas colonies. Helped contribute to English migration to America. ⸻ 29. “City Upon a Hill” vs. Religious Tolerance Know this contrast for APUSH: Massachusetts Bay → Puritan religious society → Limited religious tolerance Rhode Island → Roger Williams → Religious freedom Pennsylvania → William Penn → Quakerism + religious tolerance Maryland → Catholic refuge → Toleration Act of 1649 ⸻ ⭐ The MOST IMPORTANT Connections to Know These are the connections your teacher is likely looking for in APUSH questions. Tobacco → Virginia John Rolfe → tobacco → profitable Virginia → plantations → labor demand → indentured servants → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → class conflict → elites become more suspicious of poor white workers → increased reliance on African slavery Puritans → Massachusetts Puritans → Great Migration → Massachusetts Bay → John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Separatists → Plymouth Separatists → Pilgrims → Mayflower → Plymouth → Mayflower Compact Religious disagreement → Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson/Roger Williams → conflict with Massachusetts → Rhode Island → religious freedom Quakers → Pennsylvania William Penn → Quakers → Pennsylvania → religious tolerance Mercantilism → Navigation Acts Mercantilism → Britain wants colonies to benefit England → Navigation Acts → trade restrictions Great Awakening → religious change Great Awakening → emotional religion → New Lights → challenges established churches → increased religious diversity Slavery → plantation economy Cash crops → labor demand → African slavery → slave codes → racial hierarchy

Biological Psychology: Hassett, Hölzel, and Dement & Kleitman Studies

Dement and Kleitman

🇺🇸 APUSH CRAM SHEET PERIOD 1: 1491–1607 — Native America & Exploration Native American Societies * Iroquois Confederacy → political alliance of Native nations * Pueblo peoples → Southwest; agriculture, irrigation * Mississippian societies → Cahokia; agriculture and complex societies Columbian Exchange Americas → Europe * Corn * Potatoes * Tomatoes * Tobacco * Cacao Europe/Africa → Americas * Horses * Cattle * Sugar * Wheat * Diseases ⚠️ Major consequence: Native populations dramatically declined because of European diseases. Exploration * Christopher Columbus (1492) → opened sustained European contact * Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) → Spain/Portugal divided claims in the Americas * Encomienda System → Spanish forced Native labor ⸻ PERIOD 2: 1607–1754 — Colonies Jamestown — 1607 * First permanent English settlement * Virginia Company * John Smith → helped colony survive * Tobacco → major cash crop * John Rolfe → tobacco cultivation Important Virginia Developments * House of Burgesses (1619) → representative government * Headright System → encouraged immigration by giving land * Growth of slavery Plymouth & Massachusetts * Pilgrims → Plymouth, 1620 * Mayflower Compact → self-government * Puritans → Massachusetts Bay * John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Religion Puritans: wanted to reform the Church of England Quakers: * Religious tolerance * Equality * Pennsylvania * William Penn Bacon’s Rebellion — 1676 * Nathaniel Bacon led frontier farmers against Virginia government * Showed conflict between wealthy elites and poorer colonists * Contributed to increased reliance on enslaved labor Colonial Economies New England * Fishing * Shipbuilding * Trade * Small farms Middle Colonies * Grain * Trade * Diverse population Southern Colonies * Tobacco * Rice * Indigo * Plantation agriculture * Slavery ⸻ PERIOD 3: 1754–1800 — Revolution & Constitution French & Indian War — 1754–1763 Britain vs. France + Native allies Consequences * Britain wins * Britain gains territory * Britain has massive debt * Britain begins taxing colonies Proclamation of 1763 * Colonists prohibited from settling west of Appalachian Mountains * Angered colonists ⸻ Road to Revolution Tax Acts Stamp Act (1765) * Tax on printed materials * “No taxation without representation” Townshend Acts (1767) * Taxes on imports * Led to colonial resistance Boston Massacre (1770) * British soldiers killed colonists * Patriot propaganda Boston Tea Party (1773) * Colonists protested Tea Act Intolerable Acts (1774) * Punished Massachusetts * Helped unite colonies ⸻ Declaration of Independence — 1776 Thomas Jefferson Main ideas: * Natural rights * Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness * Government gets power from the people * People can overthrow an abusive government ⸻ Revolutionary War Turning Points Saratoga (1777) → Major American victory → France joins American side Yorktown (1781) → Cornwallis surrendered → Major fighting effectively ended Treaty of Paris (1783) → Britain recognized U.S. independence ⸻ Articles of Confederation Strengths * Won Revolutionary War * Land Ordinance of 1785 * Northwest Ordinance of 1787 Weaknesses * No power to tax * No executive branch * No national court system * Weak central government ⸻ Constitution Great Compromise * House of Representatives → population * Senate → equal representation 3/5 Compromise * Enslaved people counted as 3/5 for representation and taxation Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists Federalists * Strong national government * Hamilton * Madison * Jay Anti-Federalists * Feared centralized power * Wanted Bill of Rights Bill of Rights — 1791 First 10 amendments ⸻ PERIOD 4: 1800–1848 — Expansion & Democracy Jefferson Election of 1800 * Peaceful transfer of power * Jefferson becomes president Louisiana Purchase — 1803 * Bought from France * Doubled U.S. territory Lewis & Clark * Explored western territory ⸻ War of 1812 Causes: * British impressment * British interference with trade * British support for Native resistance Effects * Increased nationalism * Weakened Federalist Party * Encouraged American manufacturing ⸻ Market Revolution Transportation * Canals * Roads * Railroads * Steamboats Industrialization * Factories grew * Wage labor expanded * Cities grew Erie Canal → connected Great Lakes to Hudson River ⸻ Jacksonian Democracy Andrew Jackson * Expanded voting for white men * Spoils system * Popular democracy Indian Removal Act — 1830 * Forced Native Americans west * Trail of Tears * Major example of U.S. expansion and Native displacement Bank War Jackson opposed the national bank. ⸻ Manifest Destiny Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America. Texas * Texas declared independence from Mexico * Alamo * Texas becomes U.S. state in 1845 Mexican-American War — 1846–1848 U.S. victory → Mexican Cession Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo * U.S. gained California, New Mexico and huge western territory ⸻ PERIOD 5: 1844–1877 — Civil War & Reconstruction Sectionalism North * Industry * Free labor * Railroads * Growing cities South * Plantation economy * Cotton * Slavery West * Competition over whether slavery would expand ⸻ Slavery Cotton Gin * Eli Whitney * Made cotton processing faster * Increased demand for enslaved labor Missouri Compromise — 1820 * Missouri → slave * Maine → free * 36°30′ line Compromise of 1850 * California → free * Popular sovereignty in Utah/New Mexico * Fugitive Slave Act strengthened Kansas-Nebraska Act — 1854 * Popular sovereignty * Repealed Missouri Compromise * Led to Bleeding Kansas Dred Scott v. Sandford — 1857 Supreme Court ruled: * African Americans were not citizens * Congress couldn’t prohibit slavery in territories Lincoln-Douglas Debates Major issue → slavery’s expansion ⸻ Civil War Election of 1860 Abraham Lincoln wins Southern states secede. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863 * Freed enslaved people in rebelling states * Changed war aims toward ending slavery Gettysburg — 1863 Major Union victory Gettysburg Address * Equality * Democracy * “new birth of freedom” Appomattox — 1865 Lee surrendered to Grant. ⸻ Reconstruction — 1865–1877 13th Amendment Abolished slavery 14th Amendment Citizenship + equal protection 15th Amendment Voting rights for Black men Freedmen’s Bureau * Helped formerly enslaved people * Education * Employment * Food/housing assistance Black Codes Southern laws restricting African Americans after the Civil War. Ku Klux Klan Used violence and intimidation to suppress Black political participation. Compromise of 1877 * Ended disputed 1876 election * Federal troops withdrawn from South * Reconstruction effectively ended ⚠️ APUSH connection: Reconstruction achieved major constitutional changes but failed to permanently protect many of those gains. ⸻ PERIOD 6: 1865–1898 — Gilded Age Industrialization Important Industrialists * Andrew Carnegie → steel * John D. Rockefeller → oil * J.P. Morgan → banking/finance Robber Barons vs. Captains of Industry Robber Baron → exploited workers, monopolies Captain of Industry → created jobs/industry and sometimes philanthropy Social Darwinism Applied survival-of-the-fittest ideas to society/economics. ⸻ Labor Knights of Labor * Broad membership * Wanted better working conditions AFL * Samuel Gompers * Skilled workers * Higher wages * Shorter hours Major Strikes Haymarket Affair → labor unrest + anarchism Homestead Strike → Carnegie Steel Pullman Strike → railroad workers → federal government intervened ⸻ Immigration Old Immigration Mostly: * Northern/Western Europe New Immigration Mostly: * Southern/Eastern Europe * Italians * Poles * Russians Chinese Exclusion Act — 1882 Restricted Chinese immigration. ⸻ Urbanization Problems: * Tenements * Disease * Crime * Poor sanitation Political machines * Ex: Tammany Hall * Provided services in exchange for votes ⸻ PERIOD 7: 1890–1945 — Progressive Era & World Wars Progressivism Goals: * Reduce corruption * Regulate corporations * Improve working conditions * Consumer protection * Women’s suffrage Muckrakers Investigative journalists exposing problems. Upton Sinclair → The Jungle → exposed meatpacking conditions → helped inspire Meat Inspection Act & Pure Food and Drug Act Theodore Roosevelt Square Deal * Trust busting * Conservation * Consumer protection 16th Amendment → Federal income tax 17th Amendment → Direct election of senators 18th Amendment → Prohibition 19th Amendment → Women’s suffrage ⸻ Imperialism Spanish-American War — 1898 U.S. victory U.S. gains influence over: * Puerto Rico * Guam * Philippines Open Door Policy U.S. wanted equal trade access in China. Roosevelt Corollary U.S. claimed right to intervene in Latin America. ⸻ World War I Causes Think MAIN * Militarism * Alliance system * Imperialism * Nationalism U.S. enters in 1917. Wilson’s Fourteen Points * Self-determination * League of Nations * International cooperation Treaty of Versailles Senate rejected it. ⸻ 1920s Consumer Culture * Cars * Radios * Movies * Advertising Harlem Renaissance African American cultural movement. Important figures: * Langston Hughes * Zora Neale Hurston * Duke Ellington Great Migration African Americans moved from South → Northern/Western cities. ⸻ Great Depression Causes * Stock market speculation * Bank failures * Unequal wealth * Overproduction * Consumer debt FDR’s New Deal Relief → help people now Recovery → rebuild economy Reform → prevent future depression Important Programs CCC → jobs for young men WPA → public works/jobs Social Security Act → retirement assistance FDIC → protects bank deposits SEC → regulates stock market ⸻ World War II Pearl Harbor — 1941 Japan attacks U.S. U.S. enters WWII. Japanese American Internment Executive Order 9066 → forced relocation/internment D-Day — 1944 Allied invasion of Europe. Manhattan Project Developed atomic bomb. Hiroshima & Nagasaki Atomic bombs used against Japan. Japan surrenders → 1945 ⸻ PERIOD 8: 1945–1980 — Cold War & Civil Rights Cold War U.S. vs. USSR Capitalism vs. Communism Truman Doctrine Contain communism. Marshall Plan Economic aid to rebuild Europe. NATO Western military alliance. Korean War U.S. supports South Korea against communist North Korea. ⸻ Civil Rights Movement Brown v. Board — 1954 School segregation unconstitutional. Rosa Parks Montgomery Bus Boycott Martin Luther King Jr. * Nonviolent protest * Civil rights Civil Rights Act — 1964 Banned segregation/discrimination in many public settings. Voting Rights Act — 1965 Protected voting rights. Malcolm X Initially promoted Black nationalism/self-defense; later shifted views toward broader cooperation. ⸻ Vietnam War Domino Theory If one country becomes communist, nearby countries may follow. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Expanded presidential power in Vietnam. Vietnamization Nixon’s policy of reducing U.S. troops while South Vietnam took more responsibility. Effects * Antiwar movement * Distrust of government * War Powers Act ⸻ PERIOD 9: 1980–Present Reagan Reaganomics Tax cuts + deregulation + reduced government spending Conservative Movement * Lower taxes * Smaller government * Anti-communism * Traditional social values Cold War Ends 1989 → Berlin Wall falls 1991 → USSR collapses ⸻ ⭐ MUST-KNOW APUSH THEMES 1. Federal Power Articles → weak government ↓ Constitution → stronger government ↓ Civil War → massive federal expansion ↓ New Deal → federal government expands economically ↓ Great Society → federal government expands social programs ⸻ 2. Race Colonial slavery ↓ Expansion of slavery ↓ Civil War ↓ 13th/14th/15th Amendments ↓ Jim Crow ↓ Civil Rights Movement ↓ Civil Rights Act + Voting Rights Act ⸻ 3. Expansion Louisiana Purchase ↓ Manifest Destiny ↓ Mexican-American War ↓ Westward expansion ↓ Imperialism ↓ Overseas influence ⸻ 4. Economy Agricultural colonies ↓ Market Revolution ↓ Industrial Revolution ↓ Gilded Age corporations ↓ Great Depression ↓ New Deal ↓ Modern consumer economy ⸻ 🔥 20 EVENTS YOU ABSOLUTELY NEED TO KNOW Date Event 1492 Columbus 1607 Jamestown 1620 Plymouth 1754–63 French & Indian War 1776 Declaration of Independence 1781 Articles/ Yorktown 1787 Constitution 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1812 War of 1812 1820 Missouri Compromise 1830 Indian Removal Act 1846–48 Mexican-American War 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act 1861–65 Civil War 1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1865 13th Amendment 1898 Spanish-American War 1929 Great Depression begins 1941 Pearl Harbor 1954 Brown v. Board 1964 Civil Rights Act 1965 Voting Rights Act 🧠 APUSH Essay Formula For LEQs/DBQs, remember: Claim → Evidence → Explain → Connect Don’t just say what happened. Instead: Evidence: The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise. Analysis: This increased sectional tensions because it allowed slavery to potentially expand into territories previously closed to it, contributing to the breakdown of political compromise before the Civil War. APUSH loves CAUSATION, CHANGE/CONTINUITY, and COMPARISON. Ask yourself: * Why did this happen? * What did it cause? * What changed? * What stayed the same? * Who benefited? * Who was harmed? * How does this connect to another period

U.S. History Final Exam Study Guide 1. Columbus Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. He was searching for a westward route to Asia but instead reached the Caribbean. His voyage began long-term European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus’s arrival also led to major consequences for Native Americans, including disease, conquest, forced labor, and cultural destruction. 2. Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after 1492. Europeans brought horses, cattle, wheat, and diseases like smallpox. The Americas sent corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and cacao to Europe. It changed diets, economies, populations, and environments around the world. 3. Jackson and the Bank Andrew Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the United States because he believed it gave too much power to wealthy elites. He thought the bank was unfair to common people and harmful to democracy. Jackson vetoed the bill to renew the bank’s charter and removed federal money from it. This became known as the “Bank War.” 4. Jamestown Jamestown was founded in 1607 in Virginia and was the first permanent English settlement in North America. The settlers struggled with disease, starvation, poor leadership, and conflict with Native Americans. The colony survived partly because of tobacco farming. Jamestown became important because it showed England could establish colonies in America. 5. John Smith / John Rolfe John Smith helped Jamestown survive by enforcing discipline with the rule, “He who does not work shall not eat.” He also built relationships with local Native Americans. John Rolfe introduced a successful type of tobacco, which became Jamestown’s main cash crop. Rolfe also married Pocahontas, helping create a short period of peace. 6. Middle Passage The Middle Passage was the forced journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. Conditions on ships were brutal, overcrowded, and deadly. Many Africans died from disease, starvation, abuse, or suicide. It was part of the triangular trade system and a major part of the growth of slavery in the Americas. 7. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion happened in Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon led poor farmers, indentured servants, and others against Governor Berkeley. They were angry about lack of protection from Native American attacks and unfair treatment by wealthy landowners. After the rebellion, plantation owners relied more on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. 8. Mayflower Compact The Mayflower Compact was signed in 1620 by the Pilgrims before they settled at Plymouth. It created a basic form of self-government. The signers agreed to make and follow laws for the good of the colony. It is important because it was an early example of democracy and majority rule in America. 9. Pilgrims & Puritans Pilgrims were Separatists who wanted to completely break away from the Church of England. They settled Plymouth in 1620. Puritans wanted to reform or “purify” the Church of England and settled mostly in Massachusetts Bay. Both groups came for religious reasons, but the Puritans created a larger and stricter society. 10. Age of Jackson Presidents The Age of Jackson refers mainly to Andrew Jackson’s presidency and the expansion of democracy for white men. Voting rights expanded as property requirements were removed for many white males. Jackson presented himself as a champion of the common man. However, this era also included Indian removal, the Bank War, and growing sectional conflict. 11. Stamp Act The Stamp Act of 1765 was a British tax on paper goods such as newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. Colonists were angry because they had no representatives in Parliament. This led to the slogan “No taxation without representation.” Colonial protests helped force Britain to repeal the law. 12. American System The American System was an economic plan supported by Henry Clay. It included protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements such as roads and canals. Its goal was to strengthen the U.S. economy and connect different regions. It showed the federal government taking a stronger role in economic growth. 13. Boston Massacre The Boston Massacre happened in 1770 when British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five people. Colonists used the event as propaganda against Britain. Paul Revere’s engraving made the British look cruel and violent. It increased anger and tension between Britain and the colonies. 14. Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party happened in 1773. Colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor. They were angry because Britain gave the British East India Company special advantages. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, which punished Massachusetts. 15. Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. It announced that the colonies were separating from Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote most of it. The document argued that people have natural rights and that government gets power from the consent of the governed. 16. Unalienable Rights Unalienable rights are rights that cannot be taken away. In the Declaration of Independence, these include “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The idea came from Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. These rights were used to justify independence from Britain. 17. Common Sense / Thomas Paine Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776. It argued that the colonies should become independent from Britain. Paine used simple language so ordinary people could understand. It helped convince many colonists to support independence. 18. Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation were America’s first national government. They created a weak central government because Americans feared tyranny. Congress could not tax, regulate trade well, or enforce laws effectively. Its weaknesses led to the creation of the Constitution. 19. Shays’ Rebellion Shays’ Rebellion was a farmers’ rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786–1787. Farmers were angry about debt, taxes, and losing their farms. The weak national government could not respond effectively. This showed the problems of the Articles of Confederation and encouraged leaders to write the Constitution. 20. Lexington and Concord / “Shot Heard ’Round the World” The Battles of Lexington and Concord happened in April 1775. They were the first battles of the American Revolution. British troops went to seize colonial weapons, but colonial militias resisted. The “shot heard ’round the world” refers to the first shot that began the Revolution. 21. Bunker Hill The Battle of Bunker Hill happened in 1775 near Boston. The British won, but they suffered heavy casualties. The battle proved that colonial forces could fight against the powerful British army. It gave colonists confidence early in the Revolution. 22. Saratoga / Ben Franklin The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a major American victory. It is considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War. After Saratoga, France agreed to support the Americans. Benjamin Franklin helped negotiate the French alliance, which provided money, troops, and naval support. 23. Yorktown The Battle of Yorktown happened in 1781. American and French forces trapped British General Cornwallis in Virginia. The French navy blocked British escape by sea. Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the Revolutionary War. 24. Alexander Hamilton / Economic Plan Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury. His economic plan included paying off national debt, creating a national bank, and supporting manufacturing. He wanted a strong federal government and strong economy. His plan helped stabilize the new nation but caused political conflict. 25. Whiskey Rebellion The Whiskey Rebellion happened in 1794 when farmers protested a tax on whiskey. President George Washington sent federal troops to stop the rebellion. This showed that the new Constitution gave the federal government power to enforce laws. It was a contrast to the weakness shown during Shays’ Rebellion. 26. Washington’s Farewell Address Washington’s Farewell Address warned Americans against political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He believed political parties could divide the nation. He also wanted the U.S. to avoid being pulled into European conflicts. His advice influenced American foreign policy for many years. 27. James K. Polk James K. Polk was president from 1845 to 1849. He strongly supported Manifest Destiny and westward expansion. During his presidency, the U.S. gained Oregon territory and fought the Mexican-American War. The U.S. gained a large amount of land, including California and the Southwest. 28. William Henry Harrison William Henry Harrison was the 9th president of the United States. He was known as a military hero from the Battle of Tippecanoe. He gave a very long inaugural speech in cold weather and died about a month later. He had the shortest presidency in U.S. history. 29. Constitution The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. It replaced the Articles of Confederation and created a stronger federal government. It established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also created checks and balances to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful. 30. Preamble to the Constitution The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It begins with “We the People.” It explains the goals of the government, such as forming a more perfect union, establishing justice, ensuring peace, providing defense, promoting general welfare, and securing liberty. 31. The Republican Party The Republican Party was founded in the 1850s. It opposed the spread of slavery into western territories. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. The party’s rise showed how slavery was becoming the central political issue before the Civil War. 32. Three-Fifths Compromise The Three-Fifths Compromise was made at the Constitutional Convention. It said that enslaved people would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation. Southern states wanted enslaved people counted for more representation. This compromise increased Southern political power while protecting slavery. 33. Checks and Balances Checks and balances allow each branch of government to limit the power of the others. For example, the president can veto laws, Congress can override vetoes, and the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. This system prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. 34. Intolerable Acts The Intolerable Acts were passed by Britain after the Boston Tea Party. They punished Massachusetts by closing Boston Harbor and limiting self-government. Colonists saw these acts as unfair and oppressive. They helped unite the colonies against Britain. 35. Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It protects individual freedoms such as speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to bear arms. It was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists who feared a strong central government. 36. Impressment Impressment was the British practice of forcing American sailors into the British navy. It angered Americans and violated U.S. neutrality. Impressment was one of the major causes of the War of 1812. 37. Judicial Review / Marbury v. Madison Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. It was established in Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened the power of the Supreme Court through this decision. 38. James Madison James Madison is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because he helped design the U.S. government. He also helped write the Federalist Papers and the Bill of Rights. As president, he led the country during the War of 1812. 39. War of 1812 / Battle of New Orleans The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain. Causes included impressment, trade restrictions, and British support for Native American resistance. The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the peace treaty had been signed, but news had not arrived. Andrew Jackson became a national hero because of the victory. 40. Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was announced in 1823 by President James Monroe. It warned European nations not to colonize or interfere in the Americas. In return, the U.S. would stay out of European affairs. It showed growing American confidence in foreign policy. 41. John Quincy Adams / Corrupt Bargain John Quincy Adams became president after the election of 1824. No candidate won a majority, so the House of Representatives decided the election. Henry Clay supported Adams and later became Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain.” 42. Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. It encouraged westward expansion. Supporters saw expansion as progress, but it led to Native American removal, war with Mexico, and conflict over slavery. 43. Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act of 1830 allowed the federal government to move Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. The Trail of Tears refers especially to the forced removal of the Cherokee. Thousands died from hunger, disease, and exposure. It is one of the darkest examples of U.S. expansion. 44. Worcester v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia was an 1832 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee land. However, President Andrew Jackson did not enforce the ruling. The Cherokee were still forced to move west. 45. Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820. Missouri entered as a slave state, and Maine entered as a free state. It also banned slavery north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory. It temporarily balanced free and slave states but did not solve the slavery issue. 46. Alamo The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, where Texan defenders fought Mexican forces in 1836. The defenders were defeated, but the battle became a symbol of resistance. “Remember the Alamo” became a rallying cry during the Texas Revolution. 47. Kansas-Nebraska Act The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide whether to allow slavery through popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise line. It led to violence in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” and increased sectional conflict. 48. Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman escaped slavery and became a leader in the Underground Railroad. She helped many enslaved people escape to freedom. During the Civil War, she also served as a nurse, spy, and scout for the Union. She became a symbol of courage and resistance to slavery. 49. Seneca Falls Convention The Seneca Falls Convention was held in 1848 in New York. It was the first major women’s rights convention in the United States. Leaders included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. The convention demanded women’s rights, including the right to vote. 50. John Brown John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed slavery must be ended by force. In 1859, he led a raid on Harpers Ferry to start a slave rebellion. The raid failed, and Brown was executed. His actions increased tension between North and South before the Civil War. 51. Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was part of the Compromise of 1850. It required citizens to help capture escaped enslaved people. It also punished people who helped freedom seekers. Many Northerners were angered by the law because it forced them to participate in slavery. 52. Harriet Beecher Stowe / Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. The novel showed the cruelty of slavery and became very popular in the North. It helped increase abolitionist feelings. Southerners criticized it and argued that it gave a false picture of slavery. 53. Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott v. Sandford was an 1857 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens and could not sue in court. It also said Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. This decision angered Northerners and made sectional conflict worse. 54. Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Lincoln-Douglas debates happened in 1858 during the Illinois Senate race. Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated slavery’s expansion. Lincoln argued slavery should not spread, while Douglas supported popular sovereignty. Although Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates made him nationally known. 55. Popular Sovereignty Popular sovereignty means allowing people in a territory to vote on whether to allow slavery. Stephen Douglas supported this idea. It was used in the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Instead of solving the slavery issue, it led to violence and conflict. 56. Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was a federal fort in South Carolina. Confederate forces fired on it in April 1861. This attack began the Civil War. After Fort Sumter, more Southern states joined the Confederacy. 57. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. It declared enslaved people free in Confederate-controlled areas. It did not immediately free all enslaved people, but it changed the purpose of the war. The Civil War became a fight to preserve the Union and end slavery. 58. Gettysburg Address The Gettysburg Address was a speech given by Abraham Lincoln in 1863 after the Battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln honored the soldiers who died and explained the meaning of the war. He said the nation was fighting for democracy and equality. The speech is one of the most famous in American history. 59. Reconstruction Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War when the U.S. tried to rebuild the South and reunite the nation. It also aimed to define freedom and rights for formerly enslaved people. During Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were passed. However, racism, Black Codes, and groups like the Ku Klux Klan limited progress. 60. Civil War Amendments The Civil War Amendments are the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave Black men the right to vote. 61. Roger Williams Roger Williams was a Puritan minister who believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state. He was banished from Massachusetts for his beliefs. He founded Rhode Island, which became known for religious tolerance. His ideas influenced later American ideas about freedom of religion.

Dement and Kleitman AS Level

Dement & Kleitman – Sleep and Dreams

dement & kleitman sleep study

AICE Psych: Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and Dreams)

Dement & Kleitman (1957) Study on Eye Movements During Sleep

Dement and Kleitman (1957) Study on Sleep and Dreams

Dement and Kleitman

AS Psychology: Dement and Kleitman (1957) Study

Dement & Kleitman (1957)

Dement and Klietman

Dement and Kleitman

dement and kleitman (sleep & dreams)