Mind, Body, Spirit - Modlin-Tucker

Exam Review Chapters 1, 2, & 3. Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology Behavior: Everything, we do that can be directly observed. Behavioral approach: an approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. Biological approach: an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. Case study or case history: an in-depth look at a single individual. Cognitive approach: an approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems. Control group: The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable. Correlational research: research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together. Critical thinking: The process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence. Dependent variable: The outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable. Double-blind experiment: An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated. Evolutionary approach: An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. Experiment: A carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable. Experimental group: The participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under study—that is, those who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents. Functionalism: James’s approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment. Humanistic approach: An approach to psychology emphasizing a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny. Hypothesis: A testable prediction that derives logically from a theory. Independent variable: A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are. Longitudinal design: A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time. Mental processes: The thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but that cannot be observed directly. Natural selection: Darwin’s principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring. Naturalistic observation: The observation of behavior in a real-world setting. Placebo: In a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to participants in a control group so that they are treated identically to the experimental group except for the active agent. Placebo effect: The situation where participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an experimental outcome. Population: The entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions. Psychoanalysis: techniques involves an analyst unlocking a person's unconscious conflicts by talking with the individual about his or her childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and feelings. Psychodynamic approach: an approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences. Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Sample: The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study. Sociocultural approach: an approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior. Structuralism: Wundt’s approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes. Theory: A broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations. Validity: The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. Variable: Anything that can change. Wilhelm Wundt is most often regarded the "founding father" of modern psychology. He was also the founder of structuralism. William James was the founder of functionalism. J. B. Watson and B. F. Skinner believed that psychology should focus on an organism's visible interactions with the environment—that is, behaviors. Ethical Guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association include: • informed consent. • confidentiality. • deception. • debriefing. Chapter 2 The Brain and Behavior Action potential: The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon. Adrenal glands: glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress. Amygdala: An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism’s survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals. Association cortex: Sometimes called association areas, the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving. Autonomic nervous system: The body system that takes messages to and from the body’s internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. Axon The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells. Basal ganglia Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements. Brain stem The stem like brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain. Cell body The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance. Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord. Cerebral cortex: Part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning. Chromosomes: In the human cell, threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent, and that contain DNA. Corpus callosum: The large bundle of axons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides. Dendrites: Treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron’s cell body. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): A complex molecule in the cell’s chromosomes that carries genetic information. Dominant-recessive genes principle: The principle that if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive. Endocrine system: The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream. Forebrain: The brain’s largest division and its most forward part. Frontal lobes: The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles. Genes: The units of hereditary information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA. Genotype: An individual’s genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material. Glands: Organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many bodily functions. Glial cells: The second of two types of cells in the nervous system; glial cells (also called glia) provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly. Hindbrain: Located at the skull’s rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons. Hippocampus: The structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories. Hormones: Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body. Hypothalamus: A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sex—as well as emotion, stress, and reward. Limbic system: A set of subcortical brain structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing. Midbrain: Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears. Motor cortex: A region in the cerebral cortex, located just behind the frontal lobes, that processes information about voluntary movement. Myelin sheath: A layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons. Neocortex: The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the human brain’s cortex. Nervous system: The body’s electrochemical communication circuitry. Neural networks: Networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output. Neurons: One of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the nerve cells that handle the information-processing function. Neurotransmitters: Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the neuron’s terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron. Occipital lobes: Structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli. Ovaries: Sex-related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in women’s sexual development and reproduction. Pancreas: A dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions. Parasympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body. Parietal lobes: Structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. Phenotype: An individual’s observable characteristics. Pituitary gland: A pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands. Plasticity: The brain’s special capacity for change. Prefrontal cortex: an important part of the frontal lobes that is involved in higher cognitive functions such as planning, reasoning, and self-control. Resting potential, The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron. Reticular formation: A system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise. Somatic nervous system: The body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the central nervous system about conditions such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell muscles what to do. Somatosensory cortex: A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes. Stem cells: Unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells. Stress: The responses of individuals to environmental stressors. Stressors: Circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress. Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress. Synapses: Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps. Temporal lobes: Structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory. Testes: Sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones involved in men’s sexual development and reproduction. Thalamus: The forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain’s central core and serves as an important relay station. Left Hemisphere • verbal processing, speech, grammar Right Hemisphere • spatial perception • visual recognition • emotion Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception Absolute threshold: The minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect. Apparent movement: The perception that a stationary object is moving. Auditory nerve: The nerve structure that receives information about sound from the hair cells of the inner ear and carries these neural impulses to the brain’s auditory areas. Binding: In the sense of vision, the bringing together and integration of what is processed by different neural pathways or cells. Binocular cues: Depth cues that depend on the combination of the images in the left and right eyes and on the way the two eyes work together. Bottom-up processing: The operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation. Cones: The receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception. Convergence: A binocular cue to depth and distance in which the muscle movements in an individual’s two eyes provide information about how deep and/or far away something is. Depth perception: The ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally. Difference threshold: The degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected. Feature detectors: Neurons in the brain’s visual system that respond to particular features of a stimulus. Figure-ground relationship: The principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (ground). Frequency theory: Theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that the perception of a sound’s frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires. Gestalt psychology A school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns. Inner ear: The part of the ear that includes the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane and whose function is to convert sound waves into neural impulses and send them to the brain. Kinesthetic senses: Senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation. Middle ear: The part of the ear that channels and amplifies sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear. Monocular cues: Powerful depth cues available from the image in one eye, either the right or the left. Noise: Irrelevant and competing stimuli—not only sounds but also any distracting stimuli for the senses. Olfactory epithelium: The lining of the roof of the nasal cavity, containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell. Opponent-process theory: Theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue. Optic nerve: The structure at the back of the eye, made up of axons of the ganglion cells, that carries visual information to the brain for further processing. Outer ear: The outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal. Pain: The sensation that warns an individual of damage to the body. Papillae: Rounded bumps above the tongue’s surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste. parallel processing: The simultaneous distribution of information across different neural pathways. Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense. perceptual constancy: The recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing. perceptual set A predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way. place theory: Theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane. retina The multilayered light-sensitive surface in the eye that records electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain. Rods: The receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision. selective attention: The act of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. semicircular canals: Three fluid-filled circular tubes in the inner ear containing the sensory receptors that detect head motion caused when an individual tilts or moves the head and/or the body. Sensation: The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy. sensory adaptation: A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation. sensory receptors: Specialized cells that detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain. signal detection theory: An approach to perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty. subliminal perception The detection of information below the level of conscious awareness. Thermoreceptors: Sensory nerve endings under the skin that respond to changes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body’s temperature at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. top-down processing The operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing at the brain’s higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world. trichromatic theory: Theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths. vestibular sense: Sense that provides information about balance and movement. visual cortex: Located in the occipital lobe, the part of the cerebral cortex involved in vision. volley principle: Principle addressing limitations of the frequency theory of hearing, stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses. Weber’s law: The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different.

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Role of Myelin and Multiple Sclerosis Overview

Human Anatomy and Physiology Third Edition Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties •Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life •Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism –“Building” processes are known as Anabolism –“Breaking down” processes are known as Catabolism •Growth—An increase in the size and/or number of cells Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued) •Excretion—Elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes •Responsiveness or Irritability—Organisms sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment •Movement—Organisms or individual cells of an organism move •Reproduction—Production of new cells during growth or repair or reproduction of new organisms Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 7) The body is constructed of a series of progressively larger “building blocks” known as the Structural Levels of Organization •Chemical Level—This is the smallest level; Chemicals range from tiny atoms to complex molecules •Cellular Level—Groups of many different types of molecules combine in specific ways to form cellular structures •Tissue Level—Two or more cell types and material outside them, called extracellular matrix, combine to perform a common function Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 7) Structural Levels of Organization (continued) •Organ Level—Two or more tissue types combine to form an organ with a recognizable shape that performs a specialized task •Organ System Level—Two or more organs that together carry out a broad function in the body –The human body has 11 organ systems •Organism Level—The organ systems function together to make up the working human body—an organism Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 7) Figure 1.5 Six structural levels of organization of the human body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Study of Anatomy can be approached in several ways •Systemic Anatomy—Examines individual organ systems •Regional Anatomy—Examines the body in regions, such as the head and neck •Surface Anatomy—Examines surface markings •Gross Anatomy—Examines structures that can be seen with the unaided eye •Microscopic Anatomy—Examines cells (Cytology) and tissues (Histology) with the use of a microscope Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) Study of Physiology includes numerous subfields •Physiology subfields are classified by organ or organ systems, such as neurophysiology and cardiophysiology •Physiologists can also study other structural levels of organization of the body such as chemical, cellular, and tissue levels Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Word Parts •The language of science is built on Word Roots—core components of words with specific meanings •Word roots are combined with Prefixes and Suffixes to yield scientific terms •For example, combine the following: –Prefix an- (means without) –Word root encephala- (means brain) –Suffix -ic (means condition of) •“Anencephalic” is the condition of lacking a part of the brain Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (1 of 4) Anatomical Position—Common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described regardless of position –Body is standing upright –Feet are shoulder width apart –Upper limbs at the sides of trunk –Head and palms facing forward Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional Terms—Describe the relative locations of body parts and markings to ensure accurate communication among scientists and healthcare professionals •Anterior/Posterior—Anterior refers to the front and posterior refers to the back; Can refer to body as a whole or to a body part •Superior/Inferior—Superior, or cranial, means towards the head and inferior, or caudal, means towards the tail; Used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional Terms (continued) •Proximal/Distal—Proximal means closer to the point of origin and distal means further from the point of origin; Used to refer to positions on the limbs only •Medial/Lateral—Medial refers to a position closer to the middle line of the body, called the midline, and lateral refers to a position farther away from the midline •Superficial/Deep—Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body and deep refers to structures farther below Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (4 of 4) Figure 1.7 Directional terms. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Medical Errors •Most medical errors occur when a patient is dispensed the wrong type or dose of medication •Occasionally, they involve surgery and are known as “wrong site” or “wrong body” procedures when the surgeon operates on the wrong part of the body or even the wrong patient •Precise communication with appropriate use of anatomical terminology is critical to prevent medical errors Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (1 of 7) Regional Terms—The body can be divided into two broad regions: Axial (head, neck, and trunk); and Appendicular (upper and lower limbs or appendages) •Each broad region can be divided into several smaller Regions •Regions may be named as nouns, such as the upper arm or brachium, or as adjective with the addition of a suffix such as -al, which is paired with the word “region” to give us the term brachial region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (2 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (3 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (4 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Trunk Pertaining To: Abdominal The abdomen Cervical The neck Gluteal The buttocks Inguinal The groin Lumbar The lower back Pelvic The pelvis Pubic The pubis Sacral The sacrum Sternal The sternum Thoracic The chest Vertebral The spinal column Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (5 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Head and Face Pertaining To: Buccal The cheek Cranial The skull Cephalic The head Frontal The forehead Mental The chin Nasal The nose Occipital The back of the head Ocular The eye Oral The mouth Otic The ear Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (6 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Upper Limb Pertaining To: Acromial The point of the shoulder Antebrachial The forearm Antecubital The anterior surface of the elbow Axillary The armpit Brachial The arm Carpal The wrist Digital The fingers (or toes) Manual The hand Metacarpal The metacarpals (bones of the hand) Palmar The palm Pollex The thumb Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (7 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Lower Limb Pertaining To: Coxal The hip Crural The anterior surface of the leg Femoral The thigh Hallux The great toe Metatarsal The metatarsals (bones of the foot) Patellar The anterior surface of the knee Pedal The foot Plantar The sole of the foot Popliteal The posterior surface of the knee Sural The posterior surface of the leg Tarsal The ankle Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (1 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Cervical region 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior side, Lateral to midline; Begins inferior to mental region; Ends superior to thoracic region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle; Superficial to underlying larynx 4.Put It All Together—Incision on anterior cervical region lateral to midline; Extended vertically 1 centimeter inferior to mental region to 2 centimeters superior to thoracic region; Deep to skin and muscle, but superficial to larynx Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (2 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Left Crural 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior and medial side; Proximal to tarsal region and distal to patellar region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone 4.Put It All Together—Wound on left anteromedial crural region, 10 centimeters proximal to tarsal region and 6 centimeters distal to patellar region; Pellet is lodged deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/bc_amerman_hap_3_concept-boost_ch1 Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (1 of 4) Planes of Section—Divide a body or body part for examination •Sagittal Plane—Divides body into right and left sections –Midsagittal Plane: Also called a Median Plane; Sections are equal –Parasagittal Plane: Sections are unequal Figure 1.9a Sagittal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (2 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Frontal Plane—Also called a Coronal Plane; Divides body into anterior and posterior sections Figure 1.9b Frontal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (3 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Transverse Plane— Also called a Horizontal Plane or Cross Section; Divides body into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections •Oblique Plane—Used less frequently; Taken at an angle Figure 1.9c Transverse planes. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (4 of 4) Study Boost: How to Learn Anatomical Terms •Flashcards are popular because research shows that they work –Make customized flashcards with Practice Anatomy Lab™ Flashcards in the Study Area of Mastering® A&P –Make handwritten flashcards •Don’t forget to “Bring It Back” by quizzing yourself and “Mix It Up” by randomizing the order Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Posterior Body Cavity Cavity—Any space within the body; Protects internal organs and allows them to move Posterior Body Cavity— Located on posterior side of body •Cranial Cavity—Within the skull; Includes the brain •Spinal Cavity—Within the vertebral column; Includes the spinal cord •Both cavities are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid, which bathes both organs Figure 1.10a Posterior body cavity, lateral view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (1 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity—Has two main divisions separated by the muscular diaphragm •Thoracic Cavity is superior to the diaphragm •Abdominopelvic Cavity is inferior to the diaphragm •Smaller cavities exist within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities formed by sheets of tissue termed Serous Membranes Figure 1.10b Anterior body cavity, anterior view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (2 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Thoracic Cavity –Pleural Cavities—Surround left and right lungs –Mediastinum—Between pleural cavities; Houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; Not within serous membrane –Pericardial Cavity—Within mediastinum; Within serous membrane that surrounds heart Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (3 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Abdominopelvic Cavity—Subdivided into superior Abdominal Cavity (diaphragm to bony pelvis) and inferior Pelvic Cavity (within bony pelvis) •Contains organs from digestive, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems •Peritoneal Cavity—Abdominal subcavity found within serous membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (4 of 8) Abdominopelvic Cavity can be divided into segments by drawing imaginary lines through its surface •One system divides the cavity into four Quadrants –Right and left upper quadrants (R U Q and L U Q); Right and left lower quadrants (R L Q and L L Q) •A second system divides the cavity into nine Regions –Right and left hypochondriac regions, Right and left lumbar regions; Right and left iliac regions; Epigastric region; Umbilical region; Hypogastric region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (5 of 8) Figure 1.11 The four quadrants and nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Abdominal Pain •Abdominal pain is a common reason for people to seek health care, but the number of structures in the abdominopelvic cavity make diagnoses difficult •The four-quadrant system helps to narrow down potential diagnoses •For example, R L Q pain may be from the appendix, ovaries in female, the first part of the large intestine, or the last portion of the small intestine Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (6 of 8) Serous Membranes—Thin sheets of tissue that fold over to form continuous double-layered structures filled with Serous Fluid to lubricate organs in the cavity –Visceral Layer—Contacts the organ –Parietal Layer—Attaches to surrounding structures Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (7 of 8) Serous Membranes (continued) •Pleural Membranes—Surround the lungs; Includes parietal and visceral pleura •Pericardial Membranes—Surround the heart; Includes parietal and visceral pericardium •Peritoneal Membranes—Surround some abdominal organs (Intraperitoneal); Includes parietal and visceral peritoneum •Organs behind the parietal peritoneum are Retroperitoneal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (8 of 8) Figure 1.13 The serous membranes of the anterior body cavities. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (1 of 2) •Used to look inside patients without surgery; Different forms of radiation form images of internal structures often along specific planes •X-Ray uses ionizing radiation; Chest image is shown (top) •Computed Tomography Scan (C T) uses ionizing radiation; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of abdominopelvic and peritoneal cavities is shown (bottom) Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (2 of 2) •Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I) involves the body being placed within a magnetic field; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of the abdominopelvic cavity is shown Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Core Principles—Set of basic concepts of anatomy and physiology that are revisited repeatedly in the text; They are related to maintaining the body’s internal environment •Feedback Loops •Relationship of Structure and Function •Gradients •Cell-Cell Communication Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis •Homeostasis—The condition in which the body develops and maintains a relatively stable internal environment –Homeostatic Imbalances—Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected –Regulated Variables—Variables in the internal environment, such as temperature, blood sugar, and many others, are controlled to stay close to a particular normal value –Controlled Variables—Variables that are manipulated to maintain the regulated variables, such as the process that increases blood sugar from stored carbohydrates Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (1 of 8) Feedback Loops—A change in a regulated variable causes effects that feed back and in turn affect that same variable •Made up of a series of events that lead to an output •As the loops continue, this output then influences the events of the loops themselves •Negative Feedback Loops—Oppose the initial change and reduce the output •Positive Feedback Loops—Reinforce the initial change and increase the output Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (2 of 8) Negative Feedback Loops—Promote stability; Negating any stimulus that moves a variable away from homeostasis •Each variable has a Set Point that includes a Normal Range around that set point •The range differs for individual variables Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (3 of 8) Steps of a Negative Feedback Loop 1.Stimulus—Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range 2.Receptor or Sensor—Cellular structure that registers the stimulus 3.Control Center—Stimulus is sent to the control center (brain or gland) by the nervous or endocrine systems 4.Effector—The cells or organ that will react 5.Responses—Effector causes the response that will return the variable to the normal range Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (4 of 8) Figure 1.14 Control of room temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (5 of 8) Figure 1.15 Control of body temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (6 of 8) Study Boost: Keeping Track of the Body’s Feedback Loops •Feedback loops occur in all body systems so there are many to remember •As you learn new feedback loops, add them to the Feedback Loops Master List page at the front of the Active-Learning Workbook •Use the list to quiz yourself “Bring It Back,” review feedback loops from other chapters “Space It Out,” and have a friend quiz you from the list in a random order “Mix It Up” Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (7 of 8) Positive Feedback Loops—Less common than negative feedback loops; Increases the response to a stimulus; Reinforces the initial stimulus •Will eventually shut off in response to an external stimulus or some outside event that is not part of the positive feedback loop •Positive feedback loops are often found within a negative feedback loop to produce a quicker response Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (8 of 8) Figure 1.16 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 2) •Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for the body; Positive feedback is good –Under normal circumstances, both types of feedback loops promote homeostasis •Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means the body’s internal environment is static or unchanging –Maintenance of normal ranges does not mean the internal environment is unchanging; Changes are normal and are occurring constantly Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 2) •Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch –The internal environment is dynamic so feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity •Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled –Variables can only be controlled through feedback loops if receptors exist to detect changes in the set point Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 BioFlix: Homeostasis Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: BioFlix: Homeostasis https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL53haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops •Childbirth begins when a woman goes into labor, which occurs by a positive feedback loop •Baby’s head stretches the cervix (stimulus); Data from nerves in the cervix (receptors) are sent to the brain (control center); Uterus (effector) produces hormone oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions (response); This continues and is amplified until the baby is born, which stops the feedback loop •Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin that is used when labor needs to be artificially started, or induced Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Structure and Function are Related at All Levels of Organization Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function •The form of a structure is such that it best suits its function; Applies to all levels of organization Figure 1.17 The relationship between structure and function. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Gradients are present any time more of something exists in one area than another and the two areas are connected •Gradients drive many of our physiological processes Figure 1.18 Examples of gradients. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Cell-Cell Communication is Required to Coordinate Body Functions •Cells communicate with each other to maintain homeostasis •Electrical Signals are transmitted between neighboring cells •Chemical Messengers released from cells may work on neighboring cells or move to other cells through body fluids Figure 1.19 Communication between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.