Psychology: Development Across the Life Span Study notes 1. Developmental psychology (slides 2–11) Developmental psychology: The study of how people change from conception until death. Three domains of development: Physical: Changes in the brain and body. Cognitive: Changes in thinking, learning and memory. Socio-emotional: Changes in emotions and relationships. Important terms Term What to remember Teratogens Substances that harm prenatal development Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) A serious condition caused by prenatal alcohol exposure Maturation Natural physical development that makes new abilities possible Synapses Connections where neurons communicate Myelination Insulation of axons that improves neural signaling Brain development: Positive environments, stimulation and caregiver contact support healthy brain development. Poverty, toxins, stress and poor nutrition can negatively affect development. Exam example: A baby gradually develops the physical ability to sit, crawl and walk. Answer: Maturation. 2. Attachment theory (slides 12–17) Harlow's experiment Baby monkeys were given two artificial mothers: A wire mother that provided milk. A soft cloth mother that provided comfort. The monkeys preferred the cloth mother and approached the wire mother mainly for food. Conclusion: Attachment involves comfort and security, not just food. Ainsworth's three attachment styles Style Behavior Secure Upset when caregiver leaves; comforted when they return Avoidant Avoids or ignores the caregiver Ambivalent Seeks comfort but also resists it Separation anxiety: Distress when separated from a caregiver. Exam example from your slides: Ian cries for attention. When his mother eventually picks him up, he hugs her but continues crying and pushes his toy away. Answer: Ambivalent attachment. 3. Piaget's cognitive development (slides 22–32) This is a section I'd spend extra time studying because it includes several theories and concepts that can appear in scenario questions. Schemas: Mental frameworks used to understand the world. Assimilation: Adding new information to an existing schema. Accommodation: Changing an existing schema to fit new information. Example: A child calls every four-legged animal a dog. That's assimilation. The child learns that cats are different from dogs and changes their understanding. That's accommodation. Piaget's four stages Four stages to memorize Age ranges follow your professor's slides. Sensorimotor: Birth–2 years Babies learn through their senses and movements. Key concept: Object permanence — knowing an object still exists when hidden. Preoperational: 2–7 years Children use symbols and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning. Key concepts: Egocentrism, symbolic play and difficulty understanding conservation. Concrete operational: 7–12 years Children develop logical thinking about concrete situations. Key concepts: Conservation, rules and improved mathematical reasoning. Formal operational: 12 years–adulthood People develop abstract thinking and can formulate and test hypotheses. Other important definitions Object permanence: Knowing something exists even when you can't see it. Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding another person's perspective. Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same even when appearance changes. Symbolic play: Pretending one object represents something else. Piaget's limitation: He underestimated how early some cognitive abilities develop. Modern psychologists often view development as more gradual. 4. Adolescent development (slides 34–38) Adolescence: Approximately ages 11–21, according to your slides. Important brain regions: Limbic system: Involved in motivation and emotions. Frontal cortex: Important for planning, judgment and decision-making. During adolescence, emotional and motivational systems can be particularly active while the frontal cortex continues developing. Factors influencing identity Culture Gender Personal characteristics Friends and peers Parenting Four parenting styles Style Definition Authoritarian Strict rules, low responsiveness Authoritative Clear rules, high responsiveness Permissive Few rules, high responsiveness Neglectful Few rules, low responsiveness Remember the difference between authoritarian and authoritative. They sound similar but represent different parenting approaches. 5. Erikson's psychosocial theory (slides 18–20, 38–40) Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development. Each involves a developmental conflict. Your slides emphasize identity formation during adolescence and three challenges in later life. For your notes, learn all eight stages. Stage Conflict Infancy Trust vs. mistrust Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Preschool Initiative vs. guilt Childhood Industry vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Four concepts to understand especially well: Identity vs. role confusion: Discovering who you are. Intimacy vs. isolation: Developing close relationships. Generativity vs. stagnation: Contributing to future generations. Integrity vs. despair: Reflecting on your life with satisfaction or regret. Exam example: Nathan joins several different social groups during high school while figuring out who he is. Answer: Identity vs. role confusion. 6. Kohlberg's moral development (slides 41–47) Kohlberg studied how people reason about right and wrong. Three levels of moral reasoning Preconventional Morality is based on punishment, rewards and self-interest. Example: "I won't steal because I might get caught." Conventional Morality is based on laws, social rules and other people's approval. Example: "I won't steal because stealing is against the law." Postconventional Morality is based on broader ethical principles and human rights. Example: "An unjust law may need to be challenged to protect human rights." Heinz dilemma: A man must decide whether to steal expensive medicine to save his dying wife. Kohlberg was interested in the reasoning behind a person's decision, not simply whether they answered yes or no. Exam examples from your slides Jan fears punishment for an unpaid textbook: Preconventional. Kyle leaves a note after damaging a car because the law requires it: Conventional. A protester breaks curfew to oppose racial injustice based on broader ethical principles: Postconventional. What to put on your exam index card Your professor may allow a limited amount of space, so prioritize concepts that are easy to confuse and useful for scenario questions. Index card notes Copy DEVELOPMENT Physical = body | Cognitive = thinking | Socio-emotional = relationships Teratogens = harm fetus | FAS = prenatal alcohol exposure | Maturation = natural physical development ATTACHMENT Harlow: Comfort over food Secure = accepts comfort | Avoidant = avoids caregiver | Ambivalent = seeks + resists comfort PIAGET Assimilation = use old schema | Accommodation = change schema Sensorimotor (0–2) = senses, object permanence Preoperational (2–7) = symbols, egocentrism, struggles with conservation Concrete (7–12) = logic, conservation Formal (12+) = abstract thinking, hypotheses ADOLESCENCE Limbic = emotion | Frontal = judgment Authoritarian = strict/low warmth | Authoritative = strict/high warmth Permissive = few rules/high warmth | Neglectful = few rules/low warmth ERIKSON Trust → Autonomy → Initiative → Industry → Identity → Intimacy → Generativity → Integrity KOHLBERG Preconventional = punishment/reward Conventional = laws/approval Postconventional = ethical principles Check your professor's rules for index-card size and whether both sides are allowed. This is a condensed reference, not a replacement for studying. How to study these notes without repeating your last exam Tonight, start with attachment and Piaget. Read each section, cover your notes and explain the concepts out loud. Then answer your professor's example questions without looking. Tomorrow, study Erikson and Kohlberg the same way. Review adolescent and prenatal development afterward. For every concept, aim to do three things: define it, give an example and recognize it in a scenario. Most importantly, don't just reread this study guide. Your professor's slides contain eight scenario-based practice questions. Answer all eight without your notes, then explain why each correct answer fits. That's your first practice test

Fill in the Blank

The key outcome of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling of 1954 was __________.

Brown v. Board of Education

Ruled that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.

What was the key outcome of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling of 1954?

Separate facilities are inherently unequal.