Chapter 3. Ethics and Social Responsibility iStock.com/Shaun Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you will be able to . . . 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society 3-2 Explain the concept of ethical behavior 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business 3-4 Discuss corporate social responsibility 3-5 Describe the arguments for and against social responsibility 3-6 Explain cause-related marketing 3-1. Determinants of a Civil Society 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society Have you ever stopped to think about the social glue that binds society together? That is, what factors keep people and organizations from running amok and doing harm, and what factors create order in a society like ours? The answer lies in social control, defined as any means used to maintain behavioral norms and regulate conflict. Behavioral norms are standards of proper or acceptable behavior. Social control is part of your life at every level, from your family to your local community, to the nation, to the global civilization. Several modes of social control are important to marketing: Ethics: Ethics are the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an individual or a group. Ethical rules and guidelines, along with customs and traditions, provide principles of right action. Laws: Often, ethical rules and guidelines are codified into law. Laws governments create are then enforced by governmental authority. This process is how the dictum “Thou shall not steal” has become part of formal law throughout the land. Law, however, is not a perfect mechanism for ensuring good corporate and employee behavior. Laws often address only the lowest common denominator of socially acceptable behavior. In other words, just because something is legal does not mean that it is ethical. For example, Texas Pete is a hot sauce sold in grocery stores across the country. The packaging for Texas Pete features a lone star, just as the Texas state flag does, and a cowboy holding a lasso. The packaging, along with the name of the product, seems to indicate that the product is made in the state of Texas, or that it is at least made from ingredients sourced in Texas. Texas Pete, however, is produced by TW Garner Foods Company, a company headquartered in North Carolina, more than 800 miles from Texas. A class action lawsuit was filed against the company for false advertising. The lawsuit claimed that consumers were paying a premium price based on their belief that the product originated in Texas, which has a reputation for spicy food. Texas Pete does not explicitly state that the product is manufactured in Texas and actually lists TW Garner Foods’ North Carolina address on the bottle, but the name of the product and the packaging certainly suggest that it is a genuine Texas-based product and could be misleading to consumers. While this presentation is technically legal, is this ethical? What’s your opinion? Here’s another example: In every state, littering is a problem—and has been for many years. Threats of fines and even jail time are shrugged off as people toss food wrappers, plastic straws and cups, and everything else imaginable out the car window. Many companies are implementing new policies to try and curtail the negative effects of littering. For example, Starbucks in California no longer automatically gives straws and plastic cutlery to customers, but, rather, will only provide these items when customers specifically request them. Nicole Glass Photography/Shutterstock.com Formal and Informal Groups: Businesses, professional organizations (such as the American Marketing Association and the American Medical Association), and clubs (such as Shriners and Ducks Unlimited) all have codes of conduct. These codes prescribe acceptable and desired behaviors for their members. Self-Regulation: Self-regulation involves the voluntary acceptance of standards established by nongovernmental entities, such as the American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) or the National Association of Manufacturers. The AAAA has a self-regulation arm that deals with deceptive advertising. Other associations have regulations relating to child labor, environmental issues, conservation, and a host of other issues. The Media: In an open, democratic society, the media play a key role in informing the public about the actions of individuals and organizations—both good and bad. Laundress, a luxury laundry detergent brand that claims to be better for you and better for the environment, came under fire after issuing a safety notice for almost all of its products. The company released the notice on its social media accounts but provided very little information about the reason for the notice. It was later revealed that the majority of the products the brand manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. 3-2a. Ethical Theories People usually base their individual choice of ethical theory on their life experiences. The following are some of the ethical theories that apply to marketing. Deontology The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This theory means that a person will follow their obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will always keep their promises to a friend and follow the law. A person who follows this theory will produce very consistent decisions because those decisions will be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontological theory is not necessarily concerned with the welfare of others. For example, suppose a salesperson has decided that it is their ethical duty (and very practical) to always be on time for meetings with clients. Today they are running late. How are they supposed to drive? Is the deontologist supposed to speed, breaking the law to uphold their duty to society, or is the deontologist supposed to arrive at their meeting late, breaking their duty to be on time? This scenario of conflicting obligations does not lead us to a clear, ethically correct resolution, nor does it protect the welfare of others from the deontologist’s decision. Utilitarianism The utilitarian ethical theory is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action. To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the ethically correct choice. One benefit of this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and use a point system to determine which choice is more beneficial for more people. This point system provides a logical and rational argument for each decision and allows a person to use it on a case-by-case basis. There are two types of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism adheres exactly to the definition of utilitarianism as just described. In act utilitarianism, a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or societal constraints like laws. Rule utilitarianism, however, considers the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and doing good at the same time. As is true of all ethical theories, however, both act and rule utilitarianism contain numerous flaws. Inherent in both are the flaws associated with predicting the future. Although people can use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no human being can be certain that their predictions will come true. This uncertainty can lead to unexpected results, making the utilitarian look unethical as time passes because their choice did not benefit the most people, as they had predicted. Another assumption a utilitarian must make is that they can compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale. However, comparing material gains such as money against intangible gains such as happiness is impossible because their qualities differ so greatly. Casuist The casuist ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes. This theory allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best possible solution according to others’ experiences. Usually, one will find examples that represent the extremes of the situation so that a compromise can be reached to include the wisdom gained from the previous situations. One drawback to this ethical theory is that there may not be a set of similar examples for a given ethical dilemma. Perhaps that which is controversial and ethically questionable is new and unexpected. Along the same line of thinking, this theory assumes that the results of the current ethical dilemma will be similar to the results in the examples. This assumption may not be true and would greatly hinder the effectiveness of applying this ethical theory. Moral Relativism Moral relativism is a belief in time-and-place ethics, that is, the truth of a moral judgment is relative to the judging person or group. According to a moral relativist, for example, stealing is not always wrong—if you are a parent and your child is starving, stealing a loaf of bread is ethically correct. The proper resolution to ethical dilemmas is based on weighing the competing factors at the moment and then deciding to take the lesser of the evils as the resolution. Moral relativists do not believe in absolute rules. Their beliefs center on the pressure of the moment and whether the pressure justifies the action taken. Virtue Ethics Aristotle and Plato taught that solving ethical dilemmas requires training—that individuals solve ethical dilemmas when they develop and nurture a set of virtues. A virtue is a character trait valued as being good. Aristotle taught the importance of cultivating virtue in his students and then having them solve ethical dilemmas using those virtues once they had become an integral part of his students’ being through their virtue training. Some modern philosophers have embraced this notion of virtue and have developed lists of what constitutes a virtuous businessperson. Some common virtues for businesspeople are self-discipline, friendliness, caring, courage, compassion, trust, responsibility, honesty, determination, enthusiasm, and humility. You may see other lists of virtues that are longer or shorter, but here is a good start for core business virtues. 3-3. Ethical Behavior in Business 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business Depending on which, if any, ethical theory a businessperson has accepted and uses in their daily conduct, the action they take may vary. For example, faced with bribing a foreign official to get a critically needed contract or shutting down a factory and laying off a thousand workers, a person following a deontology strategy would not pay the bribe. Why? A deontologist always follows the law. However, a moral relativist would probably pay the bribe. While the boundaries of what is legal and what is not are often fairly clear (e.g., do not run a red light, do not steal money from a bank, and do not kill anyone), the boundaries of ethical decision making are predicated on which ethical theory one is following. The law typically relies on juries to determine if an act is legal or illegal. Society determines whether an action is ethical or unethical. In 2022, Oracle, an information technology company, was forced to pay $23 million to settle charges of violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The U.S. Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) allege that subsidiaries of the company in India, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates used discount schemes and sham marketing reimbursements to finance funds that were then used to bribe foreign officials. Michael Egbert, corporate communications VP for Oracle, stated that “The conduct outlined by the SEC is contrary to our core values and clear policies, and if we identify such behavior, we will take appropriate action.” Morals are the rules people develop as a result of cultural values and norms. Culture is a socializing force that dictates what is right and wrong. Moral standards may also reflect the laws and regulations that affect social and economic behavior. Thus, morals can be considered a foundation of ethical behavior. Morals are usually characterized as good or bad. “Good” and “bad” have many different connotations. One such connotation is “effective” and “ineffective.” A good salesperson makes or exceeds the assigned quota. If the salesperson sells a new computer system or an OLED TV to a disadvantaged consumer—knowing full well that the person cannot keep up the monthly payments—is that still a good salesperson? What if the sale enables the salesperson to exceed their quota? “Good” and “bad” can also refer to “conforming” and “deviant” behaviors. A doctor who runs large ads offering discounts on open-heart surgery would be considered bad, or unprofessional, because they are not conforming to the norms of the medical profession. “Good” and “bad” also express the distinction between law-abiding and criminal behavior. And, finally, different religions define “good” and “bad” in markedly different ways. A Muslim who eats pork are considered bad by other Muslims, for example. Religion is just one of the many factors that affect a businessperson’s ethics. Academic researchers have examined how consumers react to the trade-offs between highly competent but less moral service providers and less competent but highly moral service providers. Their study found that consumers valued competence more than morality. In other words, purchasers of services want someone who can do the job right . . . even if that person might be a bit shady. For example, a house-painting company that does excellent work but has had some legal problems in the past would be preferred over a mediocre painting company that has never had complaints or legal problems. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3c. Ethical Guidelines and Training In recent years, many organizations have become more interested in ethical issues. Yet interest and action are not always the same thing. Although some companies are now appointing a Chief Ethics Officer (sometimes called a Chief Compliance Officer), this role is still not present at many companies. It is very common, however, for companies of various sizes to develop a code of ethics as a guideline to help marketing managers and other employees make better decisions. Creating ethics guidelines has several advantages as follows: A code of ethics helps employees identify what their firm recognizes as acceptable business practices. A code of ethics can be an effective internal control of behavior, which is more desirable than external controls, such as government regulation. A written code helps employees avoid confusion when determining whether their decisions are ethical. The process of formulating the code of ethics facilitates discussion among employees about what is right and wrong and ultimately leads to better decisions. Ethics training is an effective way to help employees put good ethics into practice. The Ethics & Compliance Initiative’s State of Ethics and Compliance in the Workplace Report found that 84 percent of employees who work for a company with a strong ethics and compliance program perceived their organization as having a strong ethical culture. Comparatively, only 13 percent of employees working for an organization classified as having an underdeveloped ethics and compliance program felt that their organization had a strong ethical culture. Strong ethical cultures give employees the appropriate guidance to handle situations involving potential wrongdoing and lead to lower rates of misconduct. Still, simply giving employees a long list of dos and don’ts does not really help employees navigate the gray areas or adapt to a changing world market. In Carson City, Nevada, all governmental lobbyists are required to attend a course on ethics and policy before they can meet with lawmakers. The training outlines exactly how and when lobbyists are allowed to interact with lawmakers and how to report any money they spend. A clear understanding of ethical expectations is essential to an industry like lobbying, where illicit—often illegal—actions are taken to promote individual causes. Because artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming so pervasive in marketing interactions with consumers, it must also be taught about ethical decision making. Already Microsoft, Adobe, and IBM, along with smaller firms and start-ups, are developing ethical guidelines and best practices for their AI use. Type “gymnast” into Google’s image search and the vast majority of the top results are female, as are the results for “nurse.” The term “parents” shows almost exclusively heterosexual couples. The results of these searches are driven by AI, which isn’t explicitly taught to discriminate. Rather, these prejudices are the result of the data submitted to the AI algorithm. “There is increasing concern that algorithms used by modern AI systems produce discriminatory outputs, presumably because they are trained on data in which societal biases are embedded,” notes Madalina Vlasceanu, an Assistant Professor of Psychology at New York University, whose research explores biases in internet search algorithms and the potential impact of these biased search results on society. The Most Ethical Companies Each year, Ethisphere magazine (targeted toward top management and focused on ethical leadership) examines more than 5,000 companies in 30 separate industries, seeking the world’s most ethical companies. It then lists the top 100. The magazine uses a rigorous format to identify true ethical leadership. A few of the selected winners are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Selected Winners of the World’s Most Ethical Companies Company Industry Country 3M Industrial manufacturing USA Accenture Consulting Services Ireland Aflac Accident and life insurance USA Apple Technology USA Colgate-Palmolive Consumer products USA Dell Technology USA EDP Energy and utilities Portugal General Motors Company Automotive USA Illy Food, beverages, and agriculture Italy Kao Health and beauty Japan L’Oreal Health and beauty France Mastercard Payment Services USA Natura Health and beauty Brazil Parsons Engineering and design USA Salesforce Application software USA U.S. Bank Banks USA Workday Software & Services USA Source: “The 2022 World’s Most Ethical Companies Honorees List,” https://worldsmostethicalcompanies.com/honorees/ (accessed January 30, 2023).

1. Barangay Health Worker (BHW) Program Republic Act No. 7883 What is it? * A community-based health initiative. * Trains local volunteers to provide primary healthcare services and health education at the barangay level. Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Why is it needed? * Helps communities with limited healthcare access. * Connects families with health centers and healthcare providers. * Brings basic healthcare closer to residents. Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Who implements it? * Department of Health (DOH) * Local Government Units (LGUs) * Local Health Boards Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Who benefits? * Barangay Health Workers * Underserved communities * Families and community members Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Importance / benefits * Makes basic healthcare more accessible. * Provides health education. * Helps identify health problems early. * Improves connections between residents and healthcare providers. Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Roles of BHWs * Provide basic health services. * Give health information and education. * Monitor community health. * Assist in disease prevention. * Encourage residents to seek proper healthcare. Green Modern Professional Environmental Awareness Presentation.pdf Penalties/fines: Not specified in the presentation. ⸻ 2. Magna Carta of Women Republic Act No. 9710 What is it? * A comprehensive Philippine human-rights law. * Signed on August 14, 2009. * Seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing, protecting, fulfilling, and promoting women’s human rights and fundamental freedoms, especially for marginalized women. magna carta of women.pdf Why was it implemented? 1. Fulfill international commitments * Helps the Philippines meet obligations under CEDAW. * Makes protection of women’s rights a domestic legal responsibility. 2. Address gender inequality * Requires government agencies to integrate women’s needs into planning. * Requires at least 5% of annual budgets for Gender and Development (GAD) programs. 3. Protect marginalized women * Includes farmers, fisherfolk, informal workers, indigenous groups, etc. * Provides rights involving land ownership, agricultural resources, social protection, and representation. magna carta of women.pdf Penalties * ₱10,000–₱50,000 fine for certain violations. * Serious violations: 1–6 months imprisonment. * Government officials who fail to enforce/protect women’s rights can face: * Formal warnings * Suspension without pay * Loss of employment magna carta of women.pdf Effects on community health * Barangays should have a VAW Desk providing crisis intervention, legal support, and psychosocial care. * Improves women’s access to public healthcare, maternal care, and family planning. * Provides up to 2 months paid special leave after gynecological surgeries. * Requires women’s representation in local development and health-planning bodies. magna carta of women.pdf Importance * Makes gender equality a legal responsibility of government. * Protects marginalized women and gives them access to resources, opportunities, and legal protection. Recommended improvements * Increase public awareness. * Strengthen enforcement and penalties. * Train barangay officials. * Hold officials accountable when complaints aren’t properly handled. ⸻ 3. Food Safety Act of 2013 Republic Act No. 10611 What is it? * Protects people from unsafe, contaminated, or harmful food. * Covers food safety from farm to fork, from production until food reaches consumers. * Strengthens food regulations and promotes proper food-handling practices. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf Why is it needed? Without proper food-safety regulation, people can be exposed to foodborne illnesses and poisoning, including diseases such as: * Botulism * Hepatitis A * Listeriosis GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf Purpose * Protect consumer health. * Make sure local food supplies are properly checked. * Facilitate market access for safe food products. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf Government agencies * FDA: processed/pre-packaged food. * DOH/LGUs: sanitation and food-service establishments. * DA: food safety in primary production such as crops, livestock, and fisheries. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf Penalties First conviction * ₱50,000–₱100,000 fine * Suspension of authorization for 1 month Second conviction * ₱100,000–₱200,000 fine * Suspension for 3 months Third conviction * ₱200,000–₱300,000 fine * Suspension for 6 months If slight physical injury occurs * ₱200,000–₱300,000 fine * 6-month suspension * Offender also pays hospitalization and rehabilitation costs. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf If serious/less serious physical injury occurs * ₱200,000–₱300,000 fine * 1-year suspension * Hospitalization and rehabilitation costs must also be paid. If death occurs * 6 months and 1 day to 6 years and 1 day imprisonment * ₱300,000–₱500,000 fine * Permanent revocation of authorization to operate the food business. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf Recommended improvements * More frequent food inspections. * Better food-safety education in schools. * Food-safety campaigns and seminars. * Encourage people to follow food-safety practices. GROUP 6 FOOD SAFETY ACT.pdf ⸻ 4. Consumer Act of the Philippines Republic Act No. 7394 What is it? * Primary national law protecting consumer interests. * Protects product safety. * Establishes fair standards for businesses. * Signed April 13, 1992. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Main objectives * Protect consumers from hazardous/substandard products. * Ban deceptive, unfair, and unconscionable sales practices. * Provide clear product information. * Give consumers legal remedies when harmed. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Why was it needed? * Protect consumers from unsafe products. * Prevent unfair business practices. * Prevent misleading information. * Promote consumers’ health, safety, and economic interests. * Protect the right to information, safety, and fair treatment. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Positive effects * Protects against unsafe/substandard products. * Requires clear labeling, descriptions, ingredients, and expiration dates. * Bans false advertising and deceptive packaging. * Gives consumers ways to seek refunds, replacements, or damages. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Possible negative effects * Compliance costs can increase product prices. * Strict licensing/certification can be difficult for small businesses. * Fraudulent or exaggerated consumer claims can financially burden honest businesses. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Penalties * Selling banned/unsafe products: ₱1,000–₱10,000 fine, 2 months–1 year imprisonment, or both. * Certain medicine/medical-device violations: ₱5,000–₱10,000 fine, 1–5 years imprisonment, or both. * Warranty violations: ₱1,000–₱50,000 fine or 1–5 years imprisonment, or both. * Certain labeling/packaging violations: ₱500–₱20,000 fine, 3 months–2 years imprisonment, or both. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Government agencies * DTI: consumer products and unfair/deceptive trade practices. * DOH: food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices. * DA: agricultural/fresh-food safety and labeling. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf Improvements * Stronger protection against online scams and fake advertisements. * More consumer education about scams, false advertising, and safe products. Green Monochromatic Simple The Minimalist Presentation Template.pdf ⸻ 5. Safe Spaces Act Republic Act No. 11313, “Bawal Bastos Law” What is it? * Protects individuals from gender-based sexual harassment in: * Public spaces * Workplaces * Schools * Online environments. Health .pdf Passed * April 17, 2019 What is gender-based sexual harassment? Unwanted/unwelcome sexual acts, comments, gestures, or behavior directed at someone because of sex, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. Health .pdf Examples * Catcalling/wolf-whistling * Unwanted sexual remarks * Sexist, homophobic, or transphobic slurs * Persistent unwanted invitations * Stalking * Unwanted sexual messages * Certain sharing of photos/videos without consent. Health .pdf Why is it important? * Promotes safety, respect, dignity, and equality. * Recognizes that harassment can happen in public spaces, schools, workplaces, and online. Community effects * Creates safer communities. * Raises awareness. * Encourages respect for boundaries. * Provides reporting mechanisms. * Requires schools/LGUs to take action. * Provides support and protection for victims. Health .pdf Penalties Catcalling/verbal harassment * 1st offense: ₱1,000 + community service + Gender Sensitivity Seminar * 2nd offense: 6–10 days arrest OR ₱3,000 fine * 3rd offense: 11–30 days arrest + ₱10,000 fine Stalking * ₱30,000 fine or arrest for first offense, with higher penalties for repeat offenses. Online sexual harassment * ₱100,000–₱500,000 fine and/or imprisonment. Health .pdf Improvements * More awareness campaigns. * Clear reporting procedures. * Easier access to complaint desks/hotlines. * Regular gender-sensitivity seminars. * More training for teachers, barangay officials, and enforcers. * Better complaint documentation/follow-up. Health .pdf ⸻ 6. Expanded Program on Immunization EPI What is it? * A public-health program designed to protect people, especially children, from vaccine-preventable diseases through recommended vaccines. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf History * Global EPI launched by WHO in 1974. * Developed into the Essential Programme on Immunization, covering vaccination throughout life. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf Philippines * Implemented through the DOH National Immunization Program (NIP) with LGUs and health facilities. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf Why was it established? Many infectious diseases caused: * Illness * Disability * Death, especially among children. Vaccination provides immunity before exposure and helps prevent outbreaks. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf Main objectives * Protect infants, children, pregnant women, and other priority groups. * Increase immunization coverage. * Give vaccines at recommended ages/intervals. * Prevent outbreaks. * Reduce illness, disability, and deaths. * Reach communities with limited healthcare access. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf Diseases mentioned * Tuberculosis * Hepatitis B * Diphtheria * Pertussis * Tetanus * Polio * Measles * Mumps * Rubella * Hib disease * Pneumococcal disease * HPV-related diseases. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf How it works * Vaccines train the immune system to recognize specific pathogens. * High vaccination coverage reduces disease transmission and can help protect people who cannot receive certain vaccines or don’t develop adequate immunity. Expanded Program on Immunization.pdf Challenges * Limited healthcare access. * Vaccine hesitancy/misinformation. * Missed or delayed appointments. * Supply/logistical problems. * Health-system barriers. * Emergencies/disruptions. Improvements * Improve access in remote areas. * Community/mobile vaccination. * Catch-up vaccination. * Better vaccine supply, transportation, and cold-chain management. * Train/support healthcare workers. * Better immunization records. * Accurate health education. * Counter misinformation. * Stronger disease surveillance and outbreak response. Penalties: Not specified because this is a health program rather than a presentation focused on criminal sanctions. ⸻ 7. Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act Republic Act No. 10354 What is it? * Establishes a national system for healthcare, education, and support concerning: * Pregnancy * Childbirth * Family planning * Sexual health. PE - Group 7.pdf What does it cover? * Maternal and newborn care. * Family-planning methods. * Health education. * Access to healthcare facilities/professionals. * Adolescent health guidance. PE - Group 7.pdf Why was it signed? * Address health and population concerns. * Improve access to healthcare and information. * Reduce preventable deaths related to pregnancy/childbirth. * Help families make informed decisions about having children. * Address poor and marginalized communities. * Establish government responsibilities for these services. PE - Group 7.pdf Penalties Under Section 24, the presentation lists: * ₱10,000–₱100,000 fine * 1–6 months imprisonment * Some public-official violations may result in suspension or removal from office. * Other violations have specific penalties. PE - Group 7.pdf Effects on community health * Better care before/after childbirth. * Better newborn and child healthcare. * Greater access to family planning. * Adolescent health guidance. * Additional support for people who struggle to access healthcare. PE - Group 7.pdf Why it matters * Pregnancy/childbirth can involve serious health risks. * Lack of healthcare access can worsen those risks. * Unplanned pregnancies can create additional challenges. * Misinformation can lead to poor decisions. * Poor and remote communities may have fewer healthcare options. PE - Group 7.pdf Improvements * Expand services in remote areas. * Strengthen monitoring. * Update educational materials. * Increase healthcare-worker training, especially in underserved areas. PE - Group 7.pdf ⸻ 8. National Health Insurance Program NHIP / RA 7875, expanded through RA 11223 What is it? * Government initiative intended to provide universal health-insurance coverage and financial protection against medical costs. * Enacted in 1995 under RA 7875. * Coverage was expanded through the Universal Health Care Act (RA 11223), including automatic enrollment of Filipino citizens at birth. Soft Pink Elegant Scrapbook Creative Portfolio Presentation.pdf Why was it implemented? * Make healthcare financially accessible. * Help people who cannot afford healthcare. * Provide government subsidies for indigent members. * Achieve universal health-insurance coverage. * Promote equality in healthcare access. * Share the financial burden of healthcare. Who is involved? * DOH: policy coordination/guidance and healthcare regulation. * PhilHealth: main implementer/administrator, including membership, contributions, benefits, claims, and provider accreditation. * LGUs: local implementation, enrollment support, subsidies, and access. * DSWD: helps identify indigent/vulnerable Filipinos who may qualify. Positive effects * Increased access to healthcare. * Reduces financial burden from medical emergencies. * Encourages preventive healthcare. * Particularly helps people with limited ability to pay. Problems/issues * Benefits may not cover all healthcare expenses. * Unequal healthcare access between regions. * Claims and administrative problems can cause delays or denials. Recommended improvements * Reduce out-of-pocket expenses. * Expand healthcare access, especially rural clinics. * Expand preventive care such as screenings, vaccinations, checkups, and health education. * Improve electronic claims processing. Penalties: Not specified in this presentation. ⸻ 9. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act Republic Act No. 9003 What is it? * Environmental law focused on proper solid-waste management. Why was it needed? * Non-biodegradable waste polluted waterways and marine ecosystems. * Clogged drainage contributed to localized flooding. * Rapid urbanization and single-use packaging created huge amounts of waste that local systems struggled to handle. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf When established? * Passed by Congress: December 20, 2000 * Approved: January 26, 2001 Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Who is involved? * Provinces/MMDA * Cities/municipalities * Barangays * NGOs * Manufacturers/recyclers * Private contractors * Households and businesses. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Implementation * Multi-level governance. * Mandatory waste segregation at source. * Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs). * Closure of open/unmanaged dumpsites. * Penalties for prohibited acts. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Penalties Violation Penalty Littering/dumping ₱300–₱1,000 + 1–15 days community service Improper collection/transport or open burning ₱300–₱1,000 + 1–15 days jail Non-segregated collection, squatting in dumpsites, dumping in flood-prone areas, unauthorized recycling removal ₱1,000–₱3,000 + 15 days–6 months jail Mixing recyclables, operating open dumps, non-eco packaging/importing non-eco packaging ₱500,000 + 5–10% income Importing toxic waste/unauthorized disposal ₱10,000–₱200,000 + 30 days–3 years jail Illegal waste facility/building near dumpsites/landfill on aquifer or watershed ₱100,000–₱1 million + 1–6 years jail EPR noncompliance ₱5 million–₱20 million + possible permit suspension These sanctions are listed in the presentation. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Positive effects * Cleaner and safer surroundings. * Better air quality. * Green jobs/income. * Stronger barangay leadership. * Better waste-management habits. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Negative effects * Higher costs for households/LGUs. * Inconvenience from segregation. * Improper disposal if facilities aren’t adequate. * Strain on local governments. * Dumpsite closures can create short-term problems. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf Recommendations * Enforce Extended Producer Responsibility. * Make manufacturers/distributors responsible for post-consumer plastic packaging. * Fund and require functioning barangay MRFs for composting and recycling. Group 4 RA 9003.pdf ⸻ 10. Philippine Clean Air Act Republic Act No. 8749 What is it? * Law intended to protect human health and the environment by controlling/reducing air pollution from: * Vehicles * Factories * Other pollution sources. Group 3.pdf Why is it needed? * Reduces air pollution. * Protects public health. * Sets rules for pollution from vehicles, factories, and other sources. * Gives people the right to breathe clean air. Group 3.pdf Sources of air pollution mentioned * Burning fossil fuels. * Automobiles. * Agricultural activities. * Factories and industries. * Mining activities. Effects * Air pollution can damage human health. * Industrial emissions degrade air quality. * Mining dust/chemicals can affect workers and nearby communities. How to improve air quality * Use renewable energy. * Limit fossil-fuel use. * Adopt sustainable habits. * Strengthen vehicle-emission regulations. * Control nitrogen oxides and fine particles. * Use technologies that reduce brake-related particles. The presentation says TAMIC® can reduce brake particles by 70–90%. Group 3.pdf Penalties The presentation divides violations into categories. Motor-vehicle violations * ₱10,000–₱100,000 per day of violation. * 6 months–1 year imprisonment. * Business operations may be suspended or closed. Gross violations * ₱100,000–₱1,000,000 per day. * 6–10 years imprisonment. * Business may be permanently closed. * Government officials may be dismissed or disqualified from office. The presentation describes gross violations as including things such as multiple violations within a year, ignoring DENR closure orders, or causing serious environmental damage. ⸻ Law / Program Key number BHW Program RA 7883 Magna Carta of Women RA 9710 Magna Carta GAD budget 5% Magna Carta fines ₱10k–₱50k Magna Carta imprisonment 1–6 months Food Safety Act RA 10611 Food Safety 1st conviction ₱50k–₱100k + 1 month suspension Food Safety 2nd ₱100k–₱200k + 3 months suspension Food Safety 3rd ₱200k–₱300k + 6 months suspension Food Safety death 6 months + 1 day to 6 years + 1 day Food Safety death fine ₱300k–₱500k Consumer Act RA 7394 Consumer unsafe products ₱1k–₱10k / 2 months–1 year Consumer medicine/device violations ₱5k–₱10k / 1–5 years Safe Spaces Act RA 11313 Safe Spaces 1st catcalling ₱1k + community service + seminar Safe Spaces 2nd 6–10 days or ₱3k Safe Spaces 3rd 11–30 days + ₱10k Safe Spaces online harassment ₱100k–₱500k +/or imprisonment EPI Global launch 1974 RH Law RA 10354 RH Law penalties ₱10k–₱100k / 1–6 months NHIP RA 7875 UHC expansion RA 11223 Ecological Solid Waste Act RA 9003 RA 9003 littering ₱300–₱1k + 1–15 days community service RA 9003 toxic waste ₱10k–₱200k + 30 days–3 years RA 9003 major violations ₱100k–₱1M + 1–6 years RA 9003 EPR noncompliance ₱5M–₱20M Clean Air Act RA 8749 Clean Air motor violations ₱10k–₱100k/day + 6 months–1 year Clean Air gross violations ₱100k–₱1M/day + 6–10 years

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 5 Etymological Breakdown of the Term Integumentar y System: • Integument-: Derived from the Latin root integumentum, which means "a covering," "disguise," or "cloak" (stemging from integere, meaning to cover or protect). • -ary: A standard adjectival suffix meaning "pertaining to" or "relating to.” • System: Derived from the Greek systēma, meaning a "organized whole" or a "combination of parts" working together. Put it all together, and the integumentary system literally translates to the system relating to the body's covering (the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands that protect the body as an organized unit). Overview of the Integumentary System The Skin and Beyond: • While commonly called the skin, the integumentary system is actually a complex organ system. • Includes the skin (cutaneous membrane) plus its accessory structures: hair, nails, and sweat and sebaceous (oil) glands. Scale & Importance: • The skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting for about 16 percent of body weight (16 to 20 pounds average adult) and covering a surface area of 1.5 to 2 square meters. Primary Functions: • Acts as the immediate barrier protecting the body from pathogens, chemicals, and mechanical injury. • Prevents fluid loss and regulates body temperature and sensation. Clinical Significance: • Often reflects overall health; changes in color, texture, or integrity can indicate underlying systemic diseases (e.g., cardiovascular, respiratory, or liver conditions). https://www.researchgate.net/ Overview of Skin Layers Dual-Layered Organ: • The skin consists of two main, distinct layers resting on a supportive subcutaneous layer. 1. Epidermis: • The superficial, outermost layer of the skin. • Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. • Avascular (receives nutrients via diffusion from the dermis below). 2. Dermis: • The deeper layer lying directly beneath the epidermis. • Composed of connective tissue (areolar and dense irregular). • Vascularized; houses blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and sweat glands. Overview of Skin Layers 3. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer / Superficial Fascia): • Technically not part of the skin itself, but closely associated. • Composed of loose areolar and adipose tissue; anchors skin to underlying muscle and bone while providing insulation and cushioning. https://quizlet.com/ Thick Skin vs. Thin Skin (Epidermal Layers) Classification Criteria: • Skin is categorized as either "thick" or "thin" based on the number of epidermal layers and the depth of the stratum corneum, not the total thickness of the skin organ as a whole. Thin Skin: • Contains four layers (stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, and corneum). NOTE: These are listed from deep to superficial • Lacks the stratum lucidum. • Covers the vast majority of the body surface and contains hair follicles and sebaceous glands. Thick Skin: • Contains five layers (features the translucent stratum lucidum). • Found only on areas subject to heavy friction and abrasion: the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. • Features a much thicker stratum corneum and lacks hair follicles and sebaceous glands. https://med.libretexts.org/ Cells of the Epidermis 1. Keratinocytes: • The most abundant cells in the epidermis (approx. 90%). • Synthesize keratin, a tough, fibrous protein that gives skin its hardness, durability, and water-resistant properties. • Continuously produced by stem cells in the deepest layer, pushing upward and eventually shedding. 2. Melanocytes: • Located in the deepest epidermal layer. • Produce the pigment melanin, which absorbs UV radiation and protects deeper cell DNA; transferred to keratinocytes. 3. Langerhans Cells: • Dendritic cells functioning as macrophages in the epidermis. • Engulf bacteria, foreign particles, and damaged cells to trigger an immune response. 4. Merkel Cells: • Receptor cells located in the deepest layer that function as touch receptors, associating with sensory nerve endings. Cells of the Epidermis Layers (Strata) of the Epidermis Layers (Strata) of the Epidermis 1. Stratum Basale (Basal Layer / Stratum Germinativum): • Deepest single layer; attached to the basement membrane and underlying dermis. • Forms a wavy boundary by interlocking with upward projections of the dermis called dermal papillae, increasing surface area and strengthening the epidermal-dermal bond to prevent shearing (enhancing grip). • The stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells. • Site of continuous mitotic cell division (cuboidal stem cells) that continually produce new keratinocytes. • Houses melanocytes (pigment producers) and Merkel cells (touch receptors). 2. Stratum Spinosum ("Spiny Layer"): • 8 to 10 layers of keratinocytes connected by strong desmosomes, giving a spiny appearance under a microscope. • Contains maturing keratinocytes and Langerhans cells. • Keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and release a water-repelling glycolipid. https://www.flickr.com/photos/187096960@N06/51172620298 Layers (Strata) of the Epidermis 1. Stratum Basale (Basal Layer / Stratum Germinativum): • Deepest single layer; attached to the basement membrane and underlying dermis. • Forms a wavy boundary by interlocking with upward projections of the dermis called dermal papillae, increasing surface area and strengthening the epidermal-dermal bond to prevent shearing (enhancing grip). • The stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells. • Site of continuous mitotic cell division (cuboidal stem cells) that continually produce new keratinocytes. • Houses melanocytes (pigment producers) and Merkel cells (touch receptors). 2. Stratum Spinosum ("Spiny Layer"): • 8 to 10 layers of keratinocytes connected by strong desmosomes, giving a spiny appearance under a microscope. • Contains maturing keratinocytes and Langerhans cells. • Keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and release a water-repelling glycolipid. https://www.flickr.com/photos/187096960@N06/51172620298 Layers (Strata) of the Epidermis 3. Stratum Granulosum ("Granular Layer"): • 3–5 layers deep; cells flatten and fill with keratin, keratohyalin granules, and lamellar granules (waterproofing glycolipids). • Organelles disintegrate and cell death occurs as cells are pushed further from the blood supply. 4. Stratum Lucidum ("Clear Layer"): • Thin, translucent layer of dead, flattened cells packed with eleidin. • Found only in thick skin (palms of hands and soles of feet). 5. Stratum Corneum ("Horny Layer"): • Superficial layer consisting of 15–30 layers of flat, dead, keratin-filled cells. • Provides a durable, waterproof barrier against microbes, dehydration, and mechanical abrasion; continuously sloughed off. Layers (Strata) of the Epidermis The Dermis: Regions & Structure General Characteristics: • The "core" of the cutaneous system; houses blood vessels, sweat glands, oil glands, hair follicles, and nerve endings. • Consists of two layers of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts. 1. Papillary Layer: • Upper 20% of the dermis; composed of loose areolar connective tissue with a loose meshwork of collagen and elastic fibers. • Features dermal papillae that project upward into the epidermis, forming unique epidermal ridges (fingerprints) that enhance grip. • Contains rich capillary loops that nourish the avascular epidermis via diffusion and help regulate body temperature and lymphatic capillaries. • Packed with sensory nerve endings, including Meissner corpuscles (receptors sensitive to light touch) and free nerve endings that detect pain and temperature. • 2. Reticular Layer: • Deeper, thicker 80% of the dermis; composed of dense irregular connective tissue. • Packed with thick bundles of collagen fibers (for structural strength and tensile resilience) and elastic fibers (for skin stretch and recoil). • Contains larger blood vessels, sweat/sebaceous glands, and Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure receptors). Papillary layer also contains fibroblasts, some fat cells (adipocytes), and phagocytes. Meissner corpuscles https://neuroscientificallychallenged.com/glossary/meissners-corpuscles https://histology.siu.edu/intro/Meissners2.htm The Dermis: Regions & Structure • Papillary layer also contains fibroblasts, some fat cells (adipocytes), mast cells, and phagocytes. https://www.enhance-me-training.com/topic/the-dermis/ The Hypodermis (Subcutaneo us Layer) Position & Anatomy: • Located directly beneath the reticular layer of the dermis. • Technically not part of the skin proper, but rather a connective tissue layer that anchors the skin to underlying bone and muscle. • Composed primarily of loose areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue (fat cells). Vascular Supply: • Highly vascularized; contains large blood vessels that supply the skin and serve as a common site for subcutaneous injections (hypodermic needles). Primary Functions: • Energy Storage: Adipocytes store triglycerides as an energy reserve. • Insulation & Protection: The fat layer provides thermal insulation against heat loss and acts as a shock-absorbing cushion to protect underlying structures from mechanical trauma. Skin Pigmentation & Color Determinants 1. Melanin: • Produced by melanocytes; primary pigment determining skin color. • Exists in two primary forms: eumelanin (brown/black) and pheomelanin (red/yellow). • UV exposure stimulates tyrosinase enzyme activity, increasing melanin production (tanning) to shield cell nuclei from DNA damage. • Freckles and moles represent localized accumulations of melanin. 2. Carotene: • A yellow-orange pigment obtained from plant-based foods (e.g., carrots, sweet potatoes) that can accumulate in the stratum corneum and hypodermis. 3. Hemoglobin: • The red oxygen-transporting protein in red blood cells. • Imparts a pinkish or red tint to the skin as blood flows through the dermal capillaries, particularly visible in lighter-skinned individuals when oxygenated. Carotenodermia https://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJMicm950425 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaundice https://www.azolifesciences.com/ Integumentary System Disorders Overview of Accessory Structures Definition: • Structures that originate from the epidermis and extend down into the dermis or hypodermis. Key Components: • Hair • Nails • Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands • Sebaceous (Oil) Glands General Function: • While embedded in the skin, these structures play critical roles in protection, sensory input, thermoregulation, and excretion. https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/ https://www.harleystreethairtransplants.org/ Hair Structure and Growth Anatomy of a Hair: • Shaft: The portion of the hair exposed above the skin surface (completely dead, keratinized cells). • Root: The portion of hair anchored within the follicle below the skin surface. • Hair Bulb: The expanded base of the root surrounding the hair papilla (which contains blood vessels and nerves). Layers of the Hair: • Medulla: The central core of the hair. • Cortex: The middle layer providing strength and pigment. • Cuticle: The outermost layer of overlapping, single cells protecting the inner layers. Follicle & Arrector Pili: • Surrounded by a root sheath and connected to an involuntary smooth muscle called the arrector pili, which contracts to pull hair upright ("goosebumps" in response to cold or fear) and is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. • This traps a layer of air to add insulation https://www.toppik.com/ Internal Root Sheath Layers of the Hair Follicle External Root Sheath • Structure: Surrounds the growing hair root up to the hair shaft. • Origin: Derived from the basal cells of the hair matrix. Wall • Structure: Encloses the hair root as a direct extension of the epidermis. • Characteristics: Composed of basal cells at the base; becomes increasingly keratinous toward the upper regions. Glassy Membrane • Structure: A thick, clear connective tissue sheath covering the hair root. • Function: Connects the hair follicle directly to the surrounding dermal tissue. Root Hair Plexuses (Hair Follicle Receptors) • Histological Definition: Specialized networks of unmyelinated sensory nerve fibers that wrap intricately around and entwine within the external root sheath of hair follicles. • Anatomical Position: Located in the dermal portion of the hair follicle wall, typically positioned just inferior to the entrance of the sebaceous gland ducts. • Functional Role: Act as rapid-adapting mechanoreceptors (tactile receptors) responsible for detecting fine, light-touch stimuli. • Mechanism of Action: • Deflection of the hair shaft (from wind, clothing, or a crawling insect) acts as a mechanical lever. • Movement physically shifts the follicular wall and deforms the entwined nerve endings. • Mechanical deformation opens mechanically- gated ion channels, triggering action potentials that travel via sensory neurons to the central nervous system. • Clinical/Physiological Significance: Highly sensitive to initial directional movement, providing early cutaneous awareness of external environmental contact before deeper touch receptors are engaged. https://quizlet.com/ca/443370620/hair-and-nails-flash-cards/ https://www.nisenet.org/catalog/scientific-image-human-hair Hair Growth Cycle & Dynamics • Anagen Phase (Growth): Rapid cell division at the root pushes the hair shaft upward at ~0.3 mm/day; lasts 2 to 7 years. • Catagen Phase (Transition): A brief 2 to 3 week transitional period marking the end of active follicular growth. • Telogen Phase (Resting): Lasts 2 to 4 months with no new growth, culminating in a new anagen phase that sheds the old hair. • Shedding & Loss: Average daily loss is 50 hairs; excessive loss exceeding replacement results from aging, hormonal fluctuations, or dietary changes. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/halloween-hair--417638565445540250/ Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands Function: • Produce sweat to cool the body via evaporative cooling and excrete metabolic wastes. 1. Eccrine (Merocrine) Sweat Glands: • More common; distributed across nearly the entire skin surface (especially palms, soles, and forehead). • Produce a hypotonic fluid (water, salts, metabolic wastes) released via exocytosis directly onto the skin surface for thermoregulation. 2. Apocrine Sweat Glands: • Confined to areas with hair follicles (e.g., armpits and genital regions). • Larger glands that release a thicker, organic-rich (in addition to water and salts) secretion into hair follicles, which is metabolized by bacteria to produce body odor; become active starting at puberty. • The release of this sweat is under both nervous and hormonal control https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrine_sweat_gland Sebaceous (Oil) Glands Definition: • Exocrine glands associated with hair follicles found all over the body except on the palms and soles. Secretion (Sebum): • Produce sebum, a mixture of lipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Functions of Sebum: • Lubricates and waterproofs the skin and hair, preventing them from drying out. • Possesses antibacterial properties to inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the skin surface. Mode of Secretion: • Holocrine secretion: cells accumulate sebum until they rupture and destroy themselves, releasing their product (replaced by mitotic division of basal cells). https://quizlet.com/ca/443370620/hair-and-nails-flash-cards/ Nails Structure & Composition: • Specialized accessory structures composed of densely packed, dead, heavily keratinized epidermal cells. Key Anatomical Features: • Nail Body (Plate): The visible hard plate covering the dorsal surface of the fingertip/toe. • Nail Bed: The specialized skin underlying the nail body, richly supplied with blood vessels (giving it a pink color). • Nail Root: The deep epidermal fold under the skin where nail production begins. • Eponychium (Cuticle): The fold of epithelial tissue that overlaps the proximal edge of the nail body. • Lunula: The thick, crescent-shaped whitish area at the base of the nail body overlying the thick nail matrix. Primary Functions: • Protects the distal tips of fingers and toes from trauma and enhances precision grip for picking up small objects. Overview of Integumentary Functions Primary Role: • The skin and its accessory structures function as an integrated organ system that maintains homeostasis and protects the body. Core Physiological Functions: • Protection: Acts as a physical and chemical barrier against external elements. • Sensation: Detects environmental stimuli via specialized receptors. • Thermoregulation: Modulates body temperature through sweat and blood vessel adjustments. • Vitamin D Synthesis: Produces a crucial hormone essential for calcium absorption. Protection (The Body's Armor) Physical & Chemical Barrier: • Protects underlying vital organs from mechanical injury, UV radiation, wind, and water. Dehydration Prevention: • Layers of tough keratin and water-resistant glycolipids in the stratum corneum prevent excessive fluid loss. Microbial Defense: • Acts as a first line of defense against pathogens, abrasive grit, and harmful chemicals. • Sweat contains dermcidin, which possesses antibiotic properties to deter microbe over-colonization. Immune Protection: • Langerhans (dendritic) cells patrol epidermal layers to intercept foreign invaders and trigger immune responses. https://uen.pressbooks.pub/anatomyphysiology/chapter/epidermis/ Langerhan s (Dendritic) Cells (APC’s) https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/antigen-presenting-cells/ Sensation (Sensory Function) Environmental Awareness: • The integumentary system contains a rich network of specialized nerve endings and receptors across the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Key Sensory Receptors: • Meissner (Tactile) Corpuscles: Highly concentrated in fingertips; respond to light touch. • Pacinian (Lamellated) Corpuscles: Detect deep pressure and vibration. • Merkel Cells & Hair Root Plexuses: Detect fine touch and minor hair disturbances (e.g., sensing an insect crawling on the skin). Pain & Temperature: • Free nerve endings distributed throughout the skin monitor noxious stimuli, temperature shifts, and physical trauma. Sensation (Sensory Function) • Merkel cells (Tactile discs): Located in the deep layer of the epidermis (stratum basale), these are slow-adapting receptors that excel at detecting sustained touch, fine detail, texture, and edges. When pressed, they release signaling molecules that excite adjacent nerve endings, providing high-resolution tactile feedback (like reading Braille or feeling a smooth surface). • Meissner corpuscles (Tactile corpuscles): Situated in the dermal papillae of hairless (glabrous) skin, such as your fingertips and lips, these are rapid-adapting receptors. They fire intensely when skin first makes contact with an object and when it loses contact, making them exceptionally sensitive to light touch, low-frequency vibration, and slippage (helping you adjust your grip on a moving object). • Pacinian corpuscles (Lamellar corpuscles): Found deep in the dermis and subcutaneous layer, these large, onion-shaped receptors are rapidly adapting and exquisitely sensitive to deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. Because of their layered capsule, steady pressure is filtered out, allowing them to fire only when vibration or sudden mechanical shifts occur (such as feeling a drill vibrate or walking on a rough surface). • Hair root plexus (Hair follicle receptors): A web of sensory nerve fibers wrapped around the base of hair follicles. These rapid-adapting mechanoreceptors detect the bending or movement of hairs. Even a light breeze or an insect crawling across your arm displaces a hair, triggering the surrounding nerve plexus and providing an early warning system for tactile movement across hairy skin. Pacinian Corpuscle (Sensory Organ) Pacinian Corpuscle Anatomy: Encapsulated, onion-like mechanoreceptor for deep pressure and vibration. • The Capsule & Outer Lamination: Dense connective tissue outer envelope and flattened lamellar cells that filter out steady pressure. • Viscous Gel: Interstitial fluid between layers that shifts hydraulically to dampen sustained forces, driving rapid adaptation. • Inner Lamination: Tightly packed, specialized modified Schwann cells forming a core around the central nerve terminal. • Terminal Non-Myelinated Axon: Bare, uninsulated nerve tip at the center with stretch-sensitive channels that trigger action potentials when compressed. • Myelinated Axon: Insulated nerve fiber exiting the corpuscle to rapidly transmit electrical impulses toward the central nervous system via saltatory conduction. Thermoregulation Sympathetic Nervous System Control : The integumentary system works closely with the autonomic nervous system (involuntary bodily control) to continuously monitor and adjust core body temperature. Response to Overheating (Cooling): • Sweating: Eccrine sweat glands secrete water and electrolytes; evaporative cooling dissipates body heat. (Note: insensible perspiration secretes ~500 mL/day even without noticeable sweating). • Vasodilation: Dermal blood vessels dilate to bring warm blood closer to the body surface, releasing heat into the environment. Response to Cold (Heat Retention): • Vasoconstriction: Dermal arterioles constrict to minimize blood flow to the skin surface, trapping core heat internally (can cause a pale/whitish hue). • Shivering: Involuntary muscle contractions generate metabolic heat (assisted by the contraction of arrector pili muscles). Vitamin D Synthesis The Pathway: • 1. Skin Activation: When epidermal cells are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, a cholesterol derivative in the skin converts into cholecalciferol (Vitamin 3). • 2. Liver Processing: The liver converts cholecalciferol into an intermediate compound called calcidiol. • 3. Kidney Activation: The kidneys convert calcidiol into calcitriol, which is the active, functional hormone form of Vitamin D. Physiological Importance: • Calcitriol is essential for the normal intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus, which are strictly required for bone health, growth, and remodeling. https://www.researchgate.net/ Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System Epidermal & Dermal Changes: • Mitotic activity in the stratum basale slows down, causing the epidermis to thin. • The dermis exhibits a reduced ability to regenerate, leading to a loss of structural elasticity and flexibility (manifesting as wrinkles). • Fibroblast activity declines, resulting in decreased production of collagen and elastic fibers. Vascular & Glandular Decline: • Blood supply to the skin decreases, reducing the skin's capacity to heal quickly and impairing thermoregulation (leading to increased sensitivity to cold). • Functional activity of sweat (sudoriferous) and sebaceous (oil) glands drops, causing dry, scaly skin and a reduced ability to sweat effectively. Subcutaneous & Accessory Alterations: • The hypodermis loses fat storage over time, contributing to a loss of padding, insulation, and a sunken appearance. • Melanocyte and hair follicle activity slows down, resulting in graying or thinning hair and a reduced capacity to protect against UV radiation. • Immune responsiveness declines as the number of Langerhans cells drops, increasing susceptibility to skin infections and damage. Overview of Skin Cancer Definition & Cause: • Cancer caused by abnormal, uncontrollable cell division in the skin. • Primary culprit is overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds, which damages cellular DNA. The Danger of Metastasis: • Metastasis is the process where cancer cells break away from the primary tumor, enter the bloodstream or lymphatic vessels, and spread to secondary sites (such as lymph nodes, lungs, or liver), making treatment significantly more difficult. Types of Skin Cancer: • Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC): Starts in the stratum basale and spreads along that boundary; the most common form of skin cancer, highly curable with early treatment (common in areas exposed to the sun). • Treatments include surgery, freezing (cryosurgery), and topical ointments • Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC): Affects keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum; presents as lesions on the scalp, ears, and hands; more aggressive than BCC and can metastasize if left untreated. • Surgery and radiation are used to cure SCC • Melanoma: Uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, typically developing from a mole; the most fatal form of skin cancer due to high rates of metastasis. • Treatment typically involves surgical excision and immunotherapy Basal Cell Carcinoma Squamous Cell Carcinoma Melanoma Early Detection of Melanoma (The ABCDE Rule) Clinical Screening Guidelines: • A – Asymmetry: The two sides of the mole or lesion do not match. • B – Borders: The edges are irregular, ragged, notched, or blurred. • C – Color: The color is not uniform and may include different shades of brown or black, or patches of pink, red, white, or blue. • D – Diameter: The lesion is larger than 6 mm (about the size of a pencil eraser), though melanomas can sometimes be smaller. • E – Evolving: The mole is changing in size, shape, color, or elevation, or begins to bleed/itch. Common Skin Disorder s Introduction to Skin Disorders: • Skin disorders range from minor localized irritations to chronic systemic conditions, often involving inflammation, immune responses, or blocked glands. • Disorders include psoriasis, cold sores, impetigo, scabies, hives, and warts. Eczema: • An inflammatory, allergic condition that presents as dry, red, itchy patches resembling rashes. • Often accompanied by swelling, flaking, and skin cracking; managed with moisturizers, corticosteroid creams, and immunosuppressants. Acne: • A skin disturbance involving the overproduction of sebum and keratin that blocks hair follicles. • Most common during puberty due to hormonal surges (androgens) that stimulate sebaceous glands, leading to bacterial infection and inflammation. Skin Injuries & The Healing Process Types of Injuries: • Cuts, punctures, scrapes, and burns caused by physical trauma, heat, chemicals, or electricity. • Step-by-Step Wound Healing Stages: 1. Hemostasis & Clotting: A blood clot forms immediately to stop bleeding and eventually dries into a protective scab. 2. Inflammation: White blood cells (macrophages) clear out debris and fight potential infection. 3. Proliferation: Fibroblasts migrate into the wound bed to produce new collagen and blood vessels (granulation tissue). 4. Remodeling & Scarring: Epithelial cells regenerate across the wound under the scab, while scar tissue (dense collagen) replaces normal tissue depending on the depth of the injury. https://www.shieldhealthcare.com/ https://jetem.org/thermal_burns/ Burns and Classification s Nature of Burns: • Caused by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals, resulting in massive cell death and fluid loss. Severity Classifications: • First-Degree (Superficial): Affects only the epidermis; results in redness and minor pain (e.g., mild sunburn) that heals within days. • Second-Degree (Partial-Thickness): Damages both the epidermis and upper dermis; results in blistering and significant pain. • Third-Degree (Full-Thickness): Destroys the full thickness of the skin (epidermis and dermis), charring tissue and destroying nerve endings (often requiring skin grafts). • Fourth-Degree (Full-Thickness with Deep Tissue Damage): Extends completely through the skin down to underlying muscle, tendons, and bone; requires extensive surgical intervention and often amputation. Major Systemic Risks: • Severe dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, renal/circulatory failure, and rampant secondary infections due to lost skin barrier function. Fourth degree Burn https://burncenters.com/burns/evaluate-a-burn/ Common Integumentary Abnormalities and Injury Responses Scars & Keloids: • Scars: Formed when the skin repairs deep dermal damage using collagen-rich connective tissue rather than regenerating normal tissue. • Lacks accessory structures (e.g., hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands) • Keloids: Result from an overproduction of scar tissue (collagen) that extends beyond the original boundaries of the wound. Bedsores (Decubitus Ulcers): • Caused by constant, long-term pressure on bony areas that cuts off blood supply to the skin, leading to tissue necrosis and breakdown. Stretch Marks (Striae): • Occur when the dermis is stretched beyond its elastic limits (e.g., during rapid growth, weight gain, or pregnancy), causing collagen and elastin fibers to tear. Calluses & Corns: • A protective response where the stratum basale increases mitotic activity in areas subjected to constant friction or pressure, resulting in a thickened, hardened layer of dead cells. https://www.healthline.com/health/keloid-ear https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/corns-and- calluses/multimedia/callus/img-20007285 https://myexpertmidwife.com/blogs/my-expert-midwife/stretch-marks-101 https://blog.xoxoday.com/empuls/get-to-know-you-questions-for-coworkers/

Vocabulary Match (Each word can only be used once) Tolerant IP Address Internet protocol User Datagram Protocol(UDP) Protocol Path Bandwidth Computing Device Computing SystemComputing Network DataStream Packet Meta Packet Redundancy Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) Router Fault Tolerance Hi, Elijah. When you submit this form, the owner will see your name and email address. 1.Information passed through the internet in packets (2 Points) 2.Data added to packets to help route them through the network and reassemble the original message. (2 Points) 3.The maximum amount of data that can be sent in a fixed amount of time, usually measured in bits per second. (2 Points) 4.The series of connections between computing devices on a network starting with a sender and ending with a receiver (2 Points) 5.A group of interconnected computing devices capable of sending or receiving data. Path. (2 Points) 6.A chunk of data sent over a network. (2 Points) 7.A protocol for sending packets that does error-checking to ensure all packets are received and properly ordered (2 Points) 8.A protocol for sending packets quickly with minimal error-checking and no resending of dropped packets (2 Points) 9.A type of computer that forwards data across a network (2 Points) 10.The inclusion of extra components so that a system can continue to work even if individual components fail, for example by having more than one path between any two connected devices in a network. (2 Points) 11.Can continue to function even in the event of individual component failures. This is important because elements of complex systems like a computer network fail at unexpected times, often in groups. (2 Points) 12.An agreed-upon set of rules that specify the behavior of some system (2 Points) 13.The unique number assigned to each device on the Internet (2 Points) 14.A protocol for sending data across the Internet that assigns unique numbers (IP addresses) to each connected device (2 Points) 15.A machine that can run a program, including computers, tablets, servers, routers, and smart sensors (2 Points) 16.What is a group of computing devices and programs working together for a common purpose (2 Points) 17.Who helped creater the internet (2 Points) Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn The President Bill Gates Google 18.What protocol is used for transmitting web pages over the Internet (2 Points) Internet Protocal HyperText Transfer Protocol File Transfer Protocal Bandwidth 19.DNS stands for (2 Points) Domain Name Service Domain Nervous System Domain Neff Service Domain Name System 20.Differing access to computing devices and the Internet, based on socioeconomic, geographic, or demographic characteristics (2 Points) Internet Dilemma Digital Divide Net Neutrality Internet Censorship 21.What is the attempt to control or suppress what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the Internet by certain people. This can be used to protect people (i.e. to not allow access to child pornography) but can also be used to limit free speech. (2 Points) Internet Dilemma Digital Divide Net Neutrality Internet Censorship 22.While technology is increasingly integrated into daily life, there are still many who lack access to the Internet or digital technology. In rural areas there are challenges building networks to connect geographically sparse populations, but even in cities some groups or areas have relatively less access to the Internet or knowledge of how to use it. (2 Points) Internet Dilemma Digital Divide Net Neutrality Internet Censorship 23.Internet users love services like streaming movies, video chatting, or online gaming. All of this content needs to travel over the Internet, however, and the companies that build and maintain networks are complaining about the increased demands being placed on their networks (2 Points) Internet Dilemma Digital Divide Net Neutrality Internet Censorship 24.What are Packets made up of ? (2 Points) Binary Sequences of X's and O's Binary Sequences of 1's and 0's ASCII Numbers Flippy Do Pro 25.How does an Ip Address relate to a home address? Choose all that apply example 174.256.45.156 (2 Points) House number Street street Country 26.What does ARPANET stand for ? (2 Points) Agency Rest Platform and Network Solutions Aerial Research Probes Network Defense at Work Project Advanced Research Project Agency Network 27.The series of connections between computing devices on a network starting with a sender and ending with a receiver. (2 Points) Bandwidth Path Computing Network Computing Device 28.The maximum amount of data that can be sent in a fixed amount of time, usually measured in bits per second. (2 Points) Bandwidth Path Computing Network Computing Device 29.A machine that can run a program, including computers, tablets, servers, routers, and smart sensors (2 Points) Bandwidth Computing Device Computing Network Computing System 30.Pick the two statements that are true about the Internet Protocol (IP): (2 Points) Each device or computer on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address. IP is a secret protocol shared between the sender and receiver. In order to communicate two devices on the Internet must have the same IP address. IP is the shared way that all devices and computers label their messages with the sender and receiver's addresses. 31.The Internet was developed as a result of an experiment the Defense Department. (2 Points) True False 32.A Protocol is a well known set of rules and standards used to communicate between machines with trouble. (2 Points) True False 33.IPv4 was designed in 1973 and widely adopted in the early 80's and provided for more than _______________________ connected to the internet (2 Points) 80 million special devices 1 billion unique devices 4 billion unique devices 8 trillion devices 34.IPv6 use 340 Undecillion unique address to expand the network, that enough for (2 Points) Every grain of sand on earth to have an IP address every person in the USA A&T MIDDLE COLLEGE students Every person in the world 35.The Internet is not made up of many independent networks. (2 Points) True False 36.An Internet Service Provider is a company that provides Internet access to organizations and home users. (2 Points) True False 37.What level does not belong to the IP Address hierarchy? (2 Points) Country Region Mainframe Device 38.The DNS looks up domain names and gets the associated IP address. wich is used to connect your computer to the internet. (2 Points) True False 39.What is a correct IP Address? (2 Points) 174.129.14.120 www.code.org youtube/watch Amazon.com 40.DNS servers are connected in a distributed hierarchy and divided into zones, splitting up the responsibility for the major domains. (2 Points) True False 41.Which is not a major domain zones ? (2 Points) .org .net .dnc .net 42.Which of the following best describes the protocols used on the Internet? (2 Points) The protocols of the Internet are secret to maintain the privacy and security of people using them The protocols of the Internet are open and used by all devices connected to the network Each device connected to the Internet will use a protocol designed by the company that manufactured it The protocols of the Internet are designed by government agencies to ensure they remain free to use 43.Mr. Still purchases a new smartphone and is immediately able to use it to send a photo over the Internet to a friend who lives in a different country. Which of the following is NOT necessary to make this possible? (2 Points) Both devices are using the same shared and open protocols The data of the image is routed through a sequence of directly connected devices before arriving at its destination A single direct connection is established between any two devices connected to the Internet 3 Both devices are directly connected to at least one part of the Internet 44.Which of the following is true of how packets are sent through the Internet? (2 Points) Packet metadata is only included on important packets to indicate they should get access to faster paths through the network Packet metadata is used to route and reassemble information travelling through the Internet Information sent through the internet is only encapsulated in packets if the message is too large to be sent as a datastream Information sent through the internet is split into two packets, one which contains the message and another which contains the metadata 45.Emilee is watching an online video. The video is being sent to her laptop by a server over the Internet which splits the video into packets and sends them in the order they appear in the video. Which of the following is true about how the packets will arrive at her computer? (2 Points) The packets will always be received in the order that they were sent Either every packet will reach her computer or none of them will. Packets that arrive out of order will be sent back to the server The packets may arrive out of order 46.Which of the following best describes the purpose of an IP address? (2 Points) IP addresses provide a unique number for identifying devices that send and receive information on the Internet IP addresses assist in the reconstruction of a message that has been divided into many packets IP addresses indicate the location where an internet-connected computing device was manufactured IP addresses indicate how many times an individual packet has been requested by a router 47. Which of the following Internet protocols is MOST important in reassembling packets and requesting missing packets to form complete messages? (2 Points) Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocal HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Used DATA PROTOCOL 48. Two devices are connected to the Internet and communicating with one another. A squirrel chews through one of the wires in the network that is currently being used by the devices to communicate. The network immediately begins using a different path through the network and communication continues as normal. (2 Points) scalability fault-tolerance protocol pathing 49.An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that builds the routers and wired connections that allow individuals to access the Internet. An ISP is considering adding additional redundant connections to its network. Which of the following best describes why the company would choose to do so? (2 Points) It costs less to design a network that is redundant Redundant networks are more reliable Adding additional connections reduces the fault-tolerance of the network The protocols of the Internet only work on networks that are redundant 50.Which of the following can't we trust together to successively deliver informational at scale and reliability. (2 Points) HTTP &DNS TCP/IP & ROUTING INS & UDP WIRE, CABLES & WIFI

Flashcards Scientific Paper Structure, Emotional Contagion, and Neural Mechanisms in Animal Helping Behavior

Control of Microbial Growth and Microbial Contaminants

Metabolism of Sulphur-Containing Amino Acids and Research Variables

Containers

name and draw specific hydrocarbon, heteroatomic hydrocarbon, carbonyl, and nitrogen-containing functional groups

CLP FORMULAS — KNOWT STUDY GUIDE 1. Where should the 1st emergency warning triangle be placed? → 10 ft to the rear or front. On the test: rear. 2. Where should the 2nd triangle be placed? → Always 100 ft to the rear. 3. Where should the 3rd triangle be placed? → 200 ft to the rear on a one-way/divided highway. → 100 ft to the front on a two-way road. 4. On a curve or hill, how far back can the rear-most triangle be moved? → Up to 500 ft behind. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🛑 STOPPING DISTANCE @ 55 MPH 5. What is perception distance at 55 mph? → 142 ft 6. What is reaction distance at 55 mph? → 61 ft 7. What is air-brake lag distance at 55 mph? → 32 ft 8. What is braking distance on dry pavement with good brakes? → 216 ft 9. What is the TOTAL stopping distance at 55 mph? → 451 ft 🧠 Memorize: 142 + 61 + 32 + 216 = 451 ft CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🚗 FOLLOWING DISTANCE 10. What is the basic following-distance formula under 40 mph? → 1 second for every 10 ft of vehicle length. 11. What happens when traveling over 40 mph? → Add 1 additional second. 12. A 30-ft vehicle traveling over 40 mph needs how much following distance? → 4 seconds. 13. A 40-ft vehicle traveling under 40 mph needs how much? → 4 seconds. 14. A 40-ft vehicle traveling over 40 mph needs how much? → 5 seconds. 15. What is the minimum following distance for a large vehicle? → At least 4 seconds. 16. How much extra following distance should you add at night? → 1 second. 17. What should you do in slick weather? → Allow much more space. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🚌 SCHOOL BUS 18. What is the danger zone around a school bus? → 10–15 ft from the sides. 19. Which part of the side danger zone is the most dangerous? → The first 10 ft. 20. How far can the front danger zone extend? → 30 ft. 🪞 MIRRORS 21. What can flat mirrors show? → Down the sides of the bus, back tires touching the ground, and 200 ft behind. 22. What can convex mirrors show? → Down the side up to the mirror mount, in front of the back tires touching the ground, and at least one traffic lane on either side. 23. What are crossover/cross-view mirrors used for? → They are the danger-zone mirrors. 24. What can crossover/cross-view mirrors see? → Directly in front of the bus, front tires touching the ground, and the service door. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🚂 RAILROAD CROSSING 25. When should you turn on your 4-way/hazard lights? → 200 ft before the railroad crossing. 26. How far from the tracks should you stop? → No closer than 15 ft and no farther than 50 ft. 27. What should you do after stopping? → Secure the bus: parking brake ON + shift into neutral. 28. What should you open? → Service door and driver’s window. 29. What should you silence? → Passengers and noise makers: radio, heat, AC, fans. 30. What should you do before crossing? → Look and listen for a train. 31. If you see or hear a train, what do you do? → Stop and wait. 32. If there is no train, what must you check? → Containment — make sure there is enough space for the bus on the other side. 33. Once you have proper containment and no train is present, what do you do? → Go. Don’t stop and don’t back up while crossing. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🛑 SNUB vs. STAB BRAKING 34. What is snub braking used for? → Maintaining a safe speed on downgrades. 35. What is stab braking used for? → Emergency braking. 36. How does stab braking work? → Press the service brakes hard until the wheels lock → release the brakes → repeat once the wheels start rolling again. 37. Can you use stab braking on a vehicle equipped with ABS? → NO. 38. What does ABS stand for? → Anti-lock Brakes. 39. What does ABS do? → Helps prevent the wheels from locking during hard braking. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 🅿️ AIR BRAKES Brake Chamber 40. What are the two main types of brakes located within the brake chamber? → Service Brakes → Spring Brakes 41. When are service brakes tested? → While slowly moving at 5 mph. 42. What are spring brakes? → Actual mechanical springs. 43. What is Job #1 for spring brakes? → Parking brake — manually pulled. 44. What is Job #2 for spring brakes? → Emergency brake — comes on automatically when air pressure is lost. CLP Formulas - Updated 71026.pdf ⸻ 💨 AIR BRAKE TEST Starting Setup 45. What should the gauges read initially? → 125 PSI — full tanks. 46. What should you watch? → Both gauges. 47. What should you do with the parking brake? → Release it. Leak Tests 48. What is the maximum static brake leak? → 2 PSI in 1 minute. 49. What is the maximum dynamic/applied brake leak? → 3 PSI in 1 minute. 50. What happens during the static leak check? → All brakes are OFF and the system settles. 51. What happens during the dynamic/applied leak check? → Depress the service brake. CLP Formulas - ⸻ 🔥 PRESSURE NUMBERS TO MEMORIZE

Vocab: Así se contagian las emociones en Twitter

Irradiation and Radioactive Contamination

Seven continents ( without characters)

HVAC/R Systems Installation: Understanding Self-Contained AC, Central AC, and Air-to-Air Heat Pumps

Virtualization and Containers

adverbes et continents

Continents of the World

NIVEL 1 Recipientes / Containers

Forms of Contamination

1. Exploration & Native Americans Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. Wanted to find a western route to Asia. Reached the Caribbean instead. His voyages began sustained European contact with the Americas. Led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Conquistadores Spanish explorers/conquerors who sought gold, land, and converts. Helped Spain conquer large Native American empires. Often used military force and alliances with rival Native groups. Mayas, Incas, Aztecs Major civilizations in the Americas before European conquest. Aztecs: centered in Mexico; conquered by Cortés. Incas: centered in the Andes/South America; conquered by Pizarro. Mayas: Central America; famous for cities, writing, mathematics, and astronomy. Hernando Cortés Spanish conquistador. Conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519–1521. Defeated Montezuma/Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlán. Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire. Operated in present-day Peru. Montezuma Aztec ruler when Cortés arrived. Also called Moctezuma II. His empire was eventually conquered by Cortés and his allies. Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who explored the southeastern part of what became the United States. His expedition encountered Native peoples and reached the Mississippi River. Francisco de Coronado Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest and Great Plains. Searched for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River. His voyages helped France establish claims in North America. John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England. Explored the North Atlantic coast of North America in 1497. Helped England establish a claim to North American territory. Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who supported exploration. Helped Portugal develop navigation and sailing technology. Portuguese exploration contributed to the development of the Atlantic slave trade. ⸻ 2. Spanish, French & English Colonization Joint-stock company A company where investors pool money to fund a business. Why important: English colonies such as Virginia were partly financed through joint-stock companies. Virginia Company English joint-stock company. Founded Jamestown in 1607. Investors hoped to make money from the colony. Jamestown First permanent English settlement in North America, 1607. Located in Virginia. Suffered from disease, starvation, conflict, and poor leadership. Tobacco eventually helped make the colony profitable. Tidewater Coastal area of Virginia and surrounding colonies. Early English settlements were concentrated here. Piedmont Inland region between the Tidewater/coastal plain and Appalachian Mountains. Settlement expanded into this area as colonies grew. Coureurs de bois French “runners of the woods.” French colonists/traders who lived and traveled among Native Americans. Participated heavily in the fur trade. Samuel de Champlain French explorer. Founded Quebec in 1608. Known as the “Father of New France.” Developed alliances with Native Americans. ⸻ 3. Roanoke & Early Virginia Sir Walter Raleigh English supporter of colonization. Sponsored the attempted settlement at Roanoke. Roanoke English colony established in the 1580s. Eventually disappeared. Called the “Lost Colony.” John Smith Leader at Jamestown. Helped organize the settlement and enforce discipline. Famous for his relationship with Pocahontas, although later accounts are disputed. “Starving Time” Winter of 1609–1610 at Jamestown. Colonists experienced extreme hunger, disease, and death. Demonstrated how difficult early colonization was. John Rolfe Helped make Virginia economically successful by growing tobacco. Married Pocahontas. Tobacco became Virginia’s major cash crop. Headright system Colonists received land for bringing people to Virginia. Encouraged immigration. Helped create large plantations and contributed to social/economic inequality. Freeman A colonist who possessed certain political rights, including the ability to participate in government. Political rights were generally limited to certain white male colonists. House of Burgesses Created in Virginia in 1619. First representative legislative assembly in the English colonies. Important development in colonial self-government. 1618 reforms of the Virginia Company The Virginia Company changed its policies to attract settlers and make Virginia successful. Included: More representative government. Greater incentives for settlers. Expansion of land ownership. Greater economic opportunity. Result: Virginia became more attractive to settlers. ⸻ 4. Puritans & Religion John Calvin Protestant religious thinker. Developed Calvinism. Believed in predestination. Predestination The belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Puritanism Protestant movement that wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritans believed the English church still contained too many Catholic practices. Separatists Puritans who believed the Church of England could not be reformed. Wanted to separate completely from it. The Pilgrims were Separatists. Non-Separatist Puritans Wanted to reform the Church of England rather than leave it completely. Many settled Massachusetts Bay. Pilgrims Separatist Puritans. Settled at Plymouth in 1620. Signed the Mayflower Compact. Mayflower Compact Agreement signed by Plymouth settlers. Established self-government based on majority rule. Important early example of colonial self-government. Plymouth Colony founded by Pilgrims in 1620. Later became part of Massachusetts. William Bradford Pilgrim leader and governor of Plymouth. Helped maintain the colony. Wrote about Plymouth’s early history. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded by Puritans in 1630. Much larger than Plymouth. Centered around Boston. Governed according to Puritan religious beliefs. John Winthrop Governor of Massachusetts Bay. Described Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill.” “City upon a hill” Winthrop’s idea that Massachusetts should serve as an example of a successful Christian society to the world. Covenant A religious agreement between God and a community. Puritans believed their communities had a special covenant with God. “Visible saints” Puritans who demonstrated that they had received God’s grace and were considered members of the church. “Invisible saints” Those believed to have God’s grace/salvation, even though humans could not truly know who was saved. “Saving grace” The belief that God’s grace could lead a person to salvation. ⸻ 5. New England Religious Conflicts Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who challenged Massachusetts religious leaders. Believed faith/grace was more important than following religious rules. Put on trial and banished from Massachusetts. Shows the limits of religious tolerance in Massachusetts. Roger Williams Founded Rhode Island. Believed in: Religious freedom Separation of church and government Fairer treatment of Native Americans Banished from Massachusetts. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639. Established a representative government in Connecticut. Often considered one of the first written constitutions in America. King Philip’s War 1675–1676. Major conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans led by Metacom, whom colonists called King Philip. Resulted in enormous destruction and loss of Native American land and power. Toleration Act of 1649 Maryland law granting religious toleration to Christians. Intended especially to protect Catholics. Important early example of religious toleration, although it was limited. ⸻ 6. Massachusetts Education Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 Required towns to establish schools when they reached certain population sizes. Why? Puritans wanted people to be able to read the Bible. Important: Shows how strongly education and religion were connected in Puritan society. ⸻ 7. Colonial Regions New England Colonies Examples: Massachusetts Plymouth Connecticut Rhode Island New Hampshire Important characteristics Religious motivations Puritan influence Small farms Town-centered communities Fishing Shipbuilding Lumber Commerce Less suitable climate for large cash-crop plantations ⸻ Middle Colonies Examples: New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Important characteristics Religious diversity More ethnic diversity Fertile farmland Grain production Large ports Trade Cities such as New York and Philadelphia ⸻ Southern Colonies Examples: Virginia Maryland North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Important characteristics Plantation agriculture Tobacco, rice, indigo Slavery Large landowners Warm climate Greater social/economic inequality ⸻ 8. Types of Colonies Corporate colony Colony controlled by a company. Example: Virginia originally operated under the Virginia Company. Royal colony Controlled directly by the English king. Governor appointed by the king. Proprietary colony Granted by the king to an individual or group. Proprietor had significant control. Example: Pennsylvania → William Penn Charter of Liberties Early New York document providing certain rights and outlining representative government. Associated with efforts to establish political participation in the colony. ⸻ 9. William Penn & Quakers William Penn Quaker. Founded Pennsylvania. Wanted a colony based on religious tolerance. Had relatively peaceful relationships with Native Americans. Quakers / Society of Friends Protestant religious group. Believed in spiritual equality. Rejected many traditional church structures. Supported religious tolerance. Women had greater religious participation than in many other colonial communities. George Calvert Also known as Lord Baltimore. Catholic Englishman. Received land that became Maryland. Wanted a place where Catholics could practice their religion more freely. ⸻ 10. Georgia James Oglethorpe Founded Georgia in 1732. Intended Georgia partly as a buffer against Spanish Florida. Also wanted to create opportunities for poor English people. ⸻ 11. Pennsylvania & New York Patroonship Dutch system in New Netherland. Large land grants were given to wealthy individuals called patroons. Encouraged large estates. Quitrent A fee/rent paid to a proprietor for use of land. Common in proprietary colonies. ⸻ 12. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion 1676 Virginia. Nathaniel Bacon led settlers against Native Americans and Virginia’s government. Bacon’s followers believed Governor Berkeley was not protecting frontier settlers. Why important? Exposed class tensions between wealthy planters and poorer colonists. Afterward, Virginia increasingly relied on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. ⸻ 13. Colonial Social Classes Indentured servants Europeans who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America. After their contract ended, they could become free. Freedom dues Things given to indentured servants when their contract ended. Could include: Clothing Tools Land or supplies Redemptioners European immigrants who agreed to work for a period of time after arriving in America to pay off transportation costs. ⸻ 14. Slavery Chattel slavery System in which enslaved people were treated legally as property. Slavery became hereditary. Enslaved people had extremely limited/no legal freedom. Middle Passage Forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. Part of the triangular trade. Conditions were extremely overcrowded and deadly. Slave codes Laws restricting the rights and freedoms of enslaved people. They often: Prevented movement. Restricted education. Restricted assembly. Defined enslaved people as property. Made slavery hereditary. ⸻ 15. Stono Rebellion Stono Rebellion 1739, South Carolina. Enslaved Africans rebelled and attempted to escape toward Spanish Florida. Colonial authorities eventually suppressed the rebellion. Why important? Led to even stricter slave laws. ⸻ 16. Triangular Trade A trading system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Simplified: Europe → Africa Manufactured goods Africa → Americas Enslaved Africans Americas → Europe Sugar Tobacco Rice Other raw materials ⸻ 17. Mercantilism Economic theory used by European empires. Basic idea: Colonies exist to benefit the mother country. England wanted colonies to: Supply raw materials. Buy English manufactured goods. Increase England’s wealth. Strengthen England’s economy. ⸻ 18. Navigation Acts English laws regulating colonial trade. They required much colonial trade to: Use English ships. Pass through English-controlled channels. Benefit England. Goal: strengthen mercantilism. ⸻ 19. Molasses Act 1733 Taxed foreign molasses imported into British colonies. Designed to protect British sugar producers in the Caribbean. Colonists often avoided or resisted the tax through smuggling. Woolens Act Restricted colonial production/trade of woolen goods. Intended to protect English manufacturers. Hat Act Restricted colonial production/export of hats. Another example of Britain controlling colonial manufacturing. Iron Act Encouraged production of certain raw iron products in the colonies but restricted production of finished iron goods. Britain wanted colonies to supply raw materials while buying manufactured products from Britain. BIG IDEA: These laws show mercantilism and British attempts to control colonial economies. ⸻ 20. Dominion of New England Dominion of New England Created by King James II in 1686. Combined several New England colonies under one government. Why? Increase royal control. Enforce Navigation Acts. Reduce colonial self-government. Sir Edmund Andros Royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Strongly enforced royal policies. Very unpopular with many colonists. ⸻ 21. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution — 1688 English people and Parliament removed James II. William and Mary became monarchs. Increased the power of Parliament. Colonial effect: Colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England government. Sir Edmund Andros was removed. Colonists regained some self-government. ⸻ 22. Political Deference Political deference The belief that ordinary people should respect and defer to wealthy, powerful, or socially prominent leaders. Colonial society was often hierarchical. ⸻ 23. Lower House of the Legislature The elected part of a colonial legislature representing ordinary property-owning colonists. Examples: House of Burgesses Colonial assemblies Important: These assemblies helped establish the tradition of representative government. ⸻ 24. The Great Awakening Great Awakening Religious revival movement in the 1730s–1740s. Preachers emphasized: Personal faith Emotional religious experiences Salvation Individual relationships with God It challenged established churches and religious authorities. Jonathan Edwards Famous Great Awakening preacher. Known for the sermon: “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Emphasized God’s power and the need for conversion. George Whitefield Extremely popular traveling preacher. Preached throughout the colonies. Helped spread the Great Awakening. Old Lights People who supported traditional, established religious practices. New Lights People who supported the emotional revival-style religion of the Great Awakening. Baptists Protestant group that grew during the Great Awakening. Emphasized personal faith and baptism. Helped increase religious diversity. ⸻ 25. John Peter Zenger John Peter Zenger New York printer/journalist. Put on trial for criticizing the colonial governor. His lawyer argued that truthful statements should not be considered libel. Why important? His trial became an important symbol associated with freedom of the press. ⸻ 26. Maryland & Carolina Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina Document associated with governing Carolina. Created a hierarchical political/social structure. Helped establish an aristocratic plantation society. Slavery became increasingly important in Carolina. Established churches A government-supported official church. In some colonies, taxes helped support the established church. Important contrast: Established churches = government + religion connected. Rhode Island/Pennsylvania = greater religious freedom. ⸻ 27. Great Migration Great Migration, 1630–1643 Large migration of English Puritans to Massachusetts Bay and other New England colonies. Why? Religious motivations Political/religious conflict in England Desire to build Puritan communities Important: This was different from the much later Great Migration of African Americans during the 20th century. ⸻ 28. Enclosure Movement Enclosure Movement In England, landowners enclosed common lands and combined small fields into larger private farms. Effect: Some small farmers lost access to land. Increased movement of people toward cities and overseas colonies. Helped contribute to English migration to America. ⸻ 29. “City Upon a Hill” vs. Religious Tolerance Know this contrast for APUSH: Massachusetts Bay → Puritan religious society → Limited religious tolerance Rhode Island → Roger Williams → Religious freedom Pennsylvania → William Penn → Quakerism + religious tolerance Maryland → Catholic refuge → Toleration Act of 1649 ⸻ ⭐ The MOST IMPORTANT Connections to Know These are the connections your teacher is likely looking for in APUSH questions. Tobacco → Virginia John Rolfe → tobacco → profitable Virginia → plantations → labor demand → indentured servants → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → class conflict → elites become more suspicious of poor white workers → increased reliance on African slavery Puritans → Massachusetts Puritans → Great Migration → Massachusetts Bay → John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Separatists → Plymouth Separatists → Pilgrims → Mayflower → Plymouth → Mayflower Compact Religious disagreement → Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson/Roger Williams → conflict with Massachusetts → Rhode Island → religious freedom Quakers → Pennsylvania William Penn → Quakers → Pennsylvania → religious tolerance Mercantilism → Navigation Acts Mercantilism → Britain wants colonies to benefit England → Navigation Acts → trade restrictions Great Awakening → religious change Great Awakening → emotional religion → New Lights → challenges established churches → increased religious diversity Slavery → plantation economy Cash crops → labor demand → African slavery → slave codes → racial hierarchy