LATE MEDIEVAL AND EARLY RENAISSANCE NORTHERN EUROPE FRAMING THE ERA Rogier van der Weyden and Saint Luke In the 15th century, Flanders—a region corresponding to what is today Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and part of northern France (map 20-1)—enjoyed widespread prosperity. Successful merchants and craft guilds joined the clergy and royalty in commissioning artists to produce works for both public and private venues. Especially popular were paintings prepared using the recently per-fected medium of oil-based pigments, which soon became the favored painting medium throughout Europe. One of the early masters of oil painting was Rogier van der Weyden (ca. 1400–1464) of Tournai in present-day Belgium. Rogier made Brussels his home in 1435 and soon thereafter painted Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin (fig. 20-1), probably for the city’s artists’ guild, the Guild of Saint Luke. Luke was the patron saint of artists because legend said he had painted a portrait of the Virgin Mary (see “Early Christian Saints,” pages 246–247). Rogier’s subject was therefore perfectly suited for the head-quarters of a painters’ guild. It shows Luke (his identifying attribute, the ox, is at the right; see “The Four Evangelists,” page 331) at work in the kind of private residence that wealthy Flemish merchants of this era owned. Mary has miraculously appeared before Luke and invited him to paint her portrait as she nurses her son. The saint begins the process by making a preliminary drawing, the same process Rogier himself would have used when he began this commission. The painting thus not only honors Luke but also pays tribute to the profession of painting in Flanders (see “The Artist’s Profession in Flanders,” page 580) by documenting the preparatory work required before artists can begin painting the figures and setting. The subject also draws attention to the venerable history of portrait painting. A rare genre dur-ing the Middle Ages, portraiture became a major source of income for Flemish artists, and Rogier was one of the best portrait painters (fig. 20-12A) in Flanders. In fact, some scholars have suggested that Rogier’s Saint Luke is a self-portrait, identifying the painter with the first Christian artist and under-scoring the holy nature of painting. Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin is also emblematic of 15th-century Flemish painting in aiming to record every detail of a scene with loving fidelity to optical appearance, seen here in the rich fabrics, the patterned floor, and the landscape visible through the window. Also characteristic of Flemish art is the imbuing of many of the painting’s details with symbolic significance. For example, the carved armrest of the Virgin’s bench depicts Adam, Eve, and the serpent, reminding the viewer that Mary is the new Eve and Christ the new Adam who will redeem humanity from Adam and Eve’s Original Sin. 567 Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All NORTHERN EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY As the 15th century opened, Rome and Avignon were still the official seats of two competing popes (see “The Great Schism,” page 423), and the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) between France and England still raged. The general European movement toward centralized royal governments, begun in the 12th century, continued apace, with a corresponding waning of feudalism. A ris-ing merchant class, whose success depended on individual effort and talent instead of inherited nobility, spawned a new economic system—the early stage of European capitalism. In response to the financial requirements of trade, new credit and exchange systems created a network of enterprising European cities. Trade in money accompanied trade in commodities, and the former financed industry. Both were in the hands of international banking compa-nies, such as those of Jacques Coeur in Bourges (fig. 13-31) and the Medici in Florence (see “The Medici,” page 593). In 1460, Flemish entrepreneurs established the first international commercial stock North Sea E NG L AN D London English Channel Haarlem Ghent Bruges Tournai Amsterdam Nijmegen Louvain Cologne Antwerp Brussels Creglingen Würzburg Paris F R A N C E Tours POITOU Poitiers ATLANTIC OCEAN AUVERGNE Avignon Florence Lucca PAPAL STATES S PA I N 0 0 150 150 300 kilometers Mediterranean Sea 300 miles Rome Tyrrhenian Sea Adriatic Sea OT TOMAN EMP I R E Bourges BERRY Melun Nemours Colmar Dijon Beaune Lake Geneva Geneva Venice Nancy Strasbourg Buxheim H O L Y R O M A N E M P I R E Nuremberg H U NGA RY Kraków Magdeburg PO L AN D exchange in Antwerp. In fact, the French word for stock market (bourse) comes from the name of the van der Beurse family of Bru-ges, the wealthiest city in 15th-century Flanders. Art also thrived in northern Europe during this time, under royal, ducal, church, and private patronage. Two developments in particular were of special significance: the adoption by Rogier van der Weyden (fig. 20-1) and his contemporaries of oil-based pig-ment as the preferred medium for painting, and the blossoming of printmaking as a major art form, which followed Johannes Guten-berg’s invention of moveable type and the printing press. These new media had a dramatic influence on artistic production both north and south of the Alps. THE FRENCH DUCAL COURTS In the 15th century, Flanders was not an independent state but a region under the control of the duke of Burgundy, the ruler of the fertile east-central region of France still famous for its wines (map 20-1). Duke Philip the Bold (r. 1363–1404) was one of four MAP 20-1 France, the duchy of Burgundy, and the Holy Roman Empire in 1477. Late MedievaL and earLy renaissance northern europe 1395–1425 ■ Claus Sluter carves life-size statues of biblical figures with portraitlike features, and Jacques de Baerze and Melchior Broederlam carve and paint the Retable de Champmol for Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy ■ The Limbourg brothers expand the illusionistic capabilities of manuscript illumination for Jean, duke of Berry 1425–1450 ■ In Flanders, Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden use oil paints to record the exact surface appearance of objects, fabrics, and faces ■ ■ Flemish painters establish portraiture as a major art form German graphic artists pioneer wood-cut printing, making art affordable to the masses 1450–1475 ■ The second generation of Flemish master painters—Petrus Christus, Dieric Bouts, and Hugo van der Goes—continues to use oil paints for altarpieces featuring naturalistic repre-sentations of religious themes ■ In Germany, Johannes Gutenberg invents moveable type and prints the first Bibles on a letterpress 1475–1500 ■ In Flanders, Hans Memling specializes in paintings of the Madonna and Child and portraits of wealthy merchants ■ The Late Gothic style lingers in Ger-many in the large wood altarpieces carved by Veit Stoss and Tilman Riemenschneider ■ Martin Schongauer becomes the first Northern European master of metal engraving sons of King John II (r. 1350–1364) of France. In 1369, Philip mar-ried Margaret de Mâle, the daughter of the count of Flanders, and acquired territory in the Netherlands. Thereafter, the major source of Burgundian wealth was Bruges, the city that made Burgundy a powerful rival of France, which then, as in the Gothic age, was a much smaller kingdom geographically than the modern nation-state. Bruges initially derived its wealth from the wool trade, but soon expanded into banking, becoming the financial clearinghouse for all of northern Europe. Indeed, Bruges so dominated Flanders that the duke of Burgundy eventually chose to make the city his capital and moved his court there from Dijon. Due to the expanded territory and the prosperity of the duchy of Burgundy, Philip the Bold and his successors were probably the most powerful northern European rulers during the first three quarters of the 15th century. Although members of the French royal family, they usually supported England during the Hundred Years’ War because they relied on English raw materials for their wool industry. At times, the dukes of Burgundy controlled much of northern France, including Paris, the seat of the French monarchy. At the height of Burgundian power, the ducal lands stretched from the Rhône River to the North Sea. chartreuse de champmol The great wealth the Burgundy court acquired enabled it to become a significant patron of the arts. Burgundian dukes fully appreciated that artworks could support their dynastic and political goals as well as adorn their castles and townhouses. Philip the Bold’s grandest artistic enterprise was the Chartreuse de Champmol, near Dijon. A chartreuse (“charter house” in English) is a Carthusian monastery. The Carthusian order, founded by Saint Bruno (ca. 1030–1101) in the late 11th century at Chartreuse, near Grenoble in southeastern France, consisted of monks who devoted their lives to solitary liv-ing and prayer. Unlike monastic orders that earned income from farming and other work, the Carthusians generated no revenues. Philip’s generous endowment at Champmol was therefore the sole funding for an ambitious artistic program inspired by the French royal abbey at Saint-Denis (see “Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding of Saint-Denis,” page 383, and fig. 13-1), the burial site of the French kings. The duke’s choice for architect was Drouet de Dammartin, who had worked for his brother King Charles V (r. 1364–1380) on the Louvre (fig. 20-6), the French royal palace in Paris. In 1372, Philip appointed as chief sculptor the Netherlandish master Jean de Marville (d. 1389), who had also worked for Charles V, but at Rouen Cathedral. Emulating the royal burials at Saint-Denis, Philip decided to create at the Dijon chartreuse a ducal mausoleum that would serve both as a means of securing salvation in perpetuity for the ducal family (the monks prayed continuously for their souls) and as a dynastic symbol of Burgundian power. Claus Sluter. In 1389, following the death of Jean de Marville, Philip placed the Neth-erlandish sculptor Claus Sluter (ca. 1360–1406) of Haarlem in charge of the sculptural program (figs. 20-2 and 20-2a). Sluter had joined the Chartreuse de Champmol sculp-ture workshop as Jean’s assistant in 1385. For the portal (fig. 20-2A) of the monastery’s chapel, Sluter’s workshop produced stat-ues of the duke and his wife kneeling before the Virgin and Child. For the cloister, Sluter designed a large sculptural fountain located in a well (fig. 20-2). The well itself served as a water source for the monastery, but Sluter’s fountain did not spout water because the Carthusian commitment to silence and prayer would have precluded anything producing sound. The Well of Moses features statues of Moses and five other Old 20-2a Sluter, Chartreuse de Champmol portal, 1390–1393. 1 ft. 20-2 Claus Sluter, Well of Moses, Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon, France, 1396–1406. Asnières limestone, painted and gilded by Jean Malouel, Moses 69 high. The Well of Moses, a symbolic fountain of life made for the duke of Bur-gundy, originally supported a sculpted Crucifixion group. Sluter’s figures recall French Gothic jamb statues, but are far more realistic. Testament prophets (David, Daniel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zachariah) ringing a base that once supported a 25-foot-tall group of Christ on the cross mourned by Mary Magdalene, joined perhaps by the Vir-gin Mary and John the Evangelist. Art historians usually describe the Well of Moses as a fons vitae, a fountain of everlasting life, in which the blood of the crucified Christ, symbolized by water, flows down into a basin, and anyone who drinks from the fountain is redeemed. Sluter incorporated The six prophets have almost portraitlike features and distinct individual personalities and costumes. For example, David is an elegantly garbed Gothic king and Moses an elderly horned prophet (compare fig. 12-38) with a waist-length beard. Sluter intensely studied the natural appearance of faces and fabrics in order to sculpt the biblical figures in minute detail. Heavy draperies with voluminous folds swathe the life-size statues. Sluter succeeded in making their difficult, complex surfaces seem remarkably natural-istic. He enhanced this effect by skillfully differentiating textures, from coarse drapery to smooth flesh and silky hair. Paint, much of which has flaked off, further augmented the naturalism of the figures. (The painter was Jean Malouel [ca. 1365–1415], another Netherlandish master.) This fascination with the specific and tan-gible in the visible world became one of the chief characteristics of 15th-century Flemish art. Retable de Champmol. Philip the Bold also commissioned a major altarpiece—the Retable de Champmol (figs. 20-3 and 20-4)—for the main altar in the chapel of the Chartreuse. A collaborative project between two Flemish artists, this altarpiece consisted of a 1 ft. 20-3 Jacques de Baerze, Retable de Champmol (open), from the chapel of the Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon, France, installed 1399. Wood, center section 59 5 3 40 × 89 3 1 40. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Dijon. Worshipers could view the interior of the Champmol altarpiece on Sundays and feast days. Jacques de Baerze carved three scenes of Jesus’s life centered on the Crucifixion, a fitting backdrop for the Eucharist. 20-4 Melchior Broederlam, Retable de Champmol (closed), from the chapel of the Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon, France, installed 1399. Oil and tempera on wood, each wing 59 5 3 Arts, Dijon. 40 × 49 1 1 40. Musée des Beaux-This early example of oil painting attempts to represent the three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface, but the gold background and flat halos recall medieval pictorial conventions. 1 the symbolism of the fons vitae in his waterless fountain, in which the viewer must imagine Christ’s blood stream-ing down over grieving angels and the Savior’s prophetic predeces-sors. Although the models for the Old Testament figures may have been French Gothic cathedral portal statues, as was certainly the case for the Dijon chapel statues (fig. 20-2A), the inspiration for the Well of Moses prophets may have come more directly from contempora-neous mystery plays in which actors portraying prophets frequently delivered commentaries on events in Christ’s life. large sculptured shrine (fig. 20-3) by Jacques de Baerze (active ca. 1384–1399) and a pair of painted exterior panels (fig. 20-4) by Melchior Broederlam (active ca. 1387–1409). Altarpieces were a major art form north of the Alps during the late 14th and the 15th century. From their position behind the altar, they served as backdrops for the Mass, the ritual celebration of the Holy Eucharist. At the Last Supper, Christ commanded his apostles to reenact the Eucharistic meal and repeat in memory of him the communion credo, wherein he tenders his body to eat and his blood to drink (see “The Life of Jesus in Art,” pages 244–245). This act serves as the nucleus of the Mass, which involves this reenactment as well as prayer and contemplation of the word of God. Because the Mass involves not only a memorial rite but Christian doctrine as well, art has traditionally played an important role in giving visual form to complex theological concepts for the faithful. Like the narrative reliefs in medieval church portals, these altarpieces had an important teaching function, especially for the illiterate. By reinforcing Church doctrines visually, they also stimulated devotion. These altarpieces most often took the form of polyptychs—hinged multipaneled paintings or multiple carved relief panels. The hinges enabled the clergy to close the polyptych’s side wings over the central panel(s). Because artists decorated both the exterior and inte-rior of the altarpieces, this multi-image format provided the opportu-nity to construct narratives through a sequence of images. Although concrete information is lacking about when the clergy opened and closed the altarpieces, the wings probably normally remained closed but were opened on Sundays and feast days. On this schedule, view-ers could have seen both the interior and exterior—diverse imagery at various times according to the liturgical calendar. Given their placement in churches as backdrops to the Mass, it is not surprising that among the many kinds of scenes depicted on altarpieces, themes directly related to Christ’s sacrifice are com-mon. The Champmol altarpiece, or retable, for example, features sculpted passion scenes on the interior: the Crucifixion (at the cen-ter) and (at left and right respectively) the adoration of the magi and the entombment of Christ, with rows of saints on the wings, all framed by delicate pinnacles, tracery, and lancets. The carved wood narratives span the full life cycle of Jesus from his birth to his death and burial, with the figure of the Savior on the cross forming a fit-ting backdrop to the Eucharist. On the Champmol retable’s painted wings (fig. 20-4), Broeder-lam depicted the Annunciation and Visitation (on the left panel) and the presentation in the temple and flight into Egypt (on the right). Thus Broederlam’s painted images on the altarpiece’s exterior gave a fuller account of the Savior’s early life and set the stage for de Baerze’s passion scenes when the wings were folded back to reveal the sculpted narratives. The two painted wings include both landscape and inte-rior scenes. Broederlam depicted the buildings in both Romanesque and Gothic styles. Scholars have suggested that the juxtaposition of different architectural styles in the left panel is symbolic. The rotunda (round building, usually with a dome, a common antique type) refers to the Old Testament, whereas the “modern” Gothic porch with its lancet windows and tracery relates to the New Testament. In the right panel, a statue of a Greco-Roman god falls from the top of a column as the holy family approaches. These and other details announce the coming of the new order under Christ. Stylistically, Broederlam’s panels are a mixture of three-dimen-sional rendition of the landscape and buildings with a solid gold background and flat gold haloes for the holy figures, regardless of the positions of their heads. Despite these lingering medieval pictorial conventions, the altarpiece is an early example of many of the artistic developments that preoccupied European artists throughout the 15th century, especially the illusionistic depiction of three-dimensional objects and the naturalistic representation of landscape. Oil Painting. The Retable de Champmol also foreshadowed an-other significant development in 15th-century art: the widespread adoption of oil paints, which Broederlam mixed with tempera in this early example (see “Tempera and Oil Painting,” page 574). Oil paints facilitated the exactitude in rendering details so charac-teristic of Northern European painting. Although the Italian biogra-pher Giorgio Vasari (see “Giorgio Vasari’s Lives,” page 648) and other 16th-century commentators credited the Flemish master Jan van Eyck (discussed later in this chapter) with the invention of oil paint-ing, recent evidence has revealed that oil paints had been known for some time, well before Melchior Broederlam liberally used oils for Philip the Bold’s Dijon altarpiece. Flemish painters built up their pic-tures by superimposing translucent paint layers on a layer of under-painting, which in turn had been built up from a carefully planned drawing (compare Saint Luke at work in fig. 20-1) made on a panel prepared with a white ground. With the oil medium, artists could create richer colors and more subtle gradations of tone than previ-ously possible, giving their paintings the illusion of glowing light and glistening surfaces. These traits differed significantly from the high-keyed color, sharp light, and rather matte (dull) surface of tempera. The brilliant and versatile oil medium suited perfectly the formal intentions of the generation of Flemish painters after Broederlam, who aimed for sharply focused clarity of detail in their representation of objects ranging in scale from large to almost invisible. Manuscript painting During the 15th century, Northern European artists built on the achievements of Gothic painters (see “Gothic Book Production,” page 402) and produced exquisitely refined illuminated manu-scripts. Among the most significant developments in manuscript painting was a new interest in representing fully modeled figures moving freely in convincing three-dimensional settings. Increased contact with Italy, where Renaissance artists had revived the picto-rial principles of classical antiquity, may have influenced Northern painters’ interest in illusionism. Limbourg Brothers. The most innovative early-15th-century manuscript illuminators were the three Limbourg brothers—Pol, Herman, and Jean—from Nijmegen in the Netherlands. They were nephews of Jean Malouel, the court artist of Philip the Bold, who painted Sluter’s Well of Moses statues (fig. 20-2). Following in the footsteps of earlier illustrators such as Jean Pucelle (figs. 13-36 and 13-36A), the Limbourg brothers expanded the illusionistic capabili-ties of illumination. Trained in the Netherlands, the brothers moved to Paris no later than 1402, and between 1405 and their death in 1416 (probably from the plague), they worked in Paris and Bourges for Jean, duke of Berry (r. 1360–1416) and brother of Philip the Bold of Burgundy and King Charles V (r. 1364–1380) of France. Jean ruled the western French regions of Berry, Poitou, and Auvergne (map 20-1). The duke was an avid art patron and focused on collecting manuscripts, jewels, and rare artifacts. Among the more than 300 manuscripts he owned were Pucelle’s Belleville Breviary (fig. 13-36) and the Hours ofJeanne d’Evreux (fig. 13-36A) as well as Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Sumptuous Hours of the Duke of Berry; figs. 20-5 and 20-6), which he commissioned the Limbourg brothers to produce. A Book of Hours, like a breviary, was The French Ducal Courts Limbourg brothers (Pol, Herman, Jean), January, from Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1413–1416. Colors and ink on vellum, 8 7 80 × 5 3 80. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The pictures in Les Très Riches Heures depict characteristic activities of each month. The prominence of genre subjects reflects the increasing inte-gration of religious and secular art in the 15th century. a book used for reciting prayers (see “Medieval Books,” page 324). As prayer books, they replaced the traditional psalters (books of psalms), which were the only liturgical books in private hands until the mid-13th century. Books of Hours contained liturgical passages to be read privately at set times during the day, from matins (dawn prayers) to compline (the last of the prayers recited daily), including the “Office [prayer] of the Blessed Virgin.” An illustrated calendar containing local religious feast days usually preceded the Office of the Blessed Virgin. Penitential psalms, devotional prayers, litanies to the saints, and other prayers, including those of the Holy Cross and for the dead, followed. Books of Hours became favorite possessions of the Northern European aristocracy during the 14th and 15th centuries. These costly books eventually became available to affluent merchants and contributed to the decentralization of religious practice that was one factor in the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century (see “Luther and the Reformation,” page 692). The full-page calendar pictures of Les Très Riches Heures are the most famous in the history of manuscript illumination. They 20-6 Limbourg brothers (Pol, Herman, Jean), October, from Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1413–1416. Colors and ink on vellum, 8 7 80 × 5 3 80. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Limbourg brothers were pioneers in expanding the illusionistic capabili-ties of manuscript painting with their care in rendering architectural details and their convincing depiction of cast shadows. represent the 12 months in terms of the associated seasonal tasks, alternating scenes of nobility and peasantry, and featuring the duke’s relationship with his courtiers and peasants. Above each picture is a lunette in which the Limbourgs depicted the zodiac signs and the chariot of the sun as it makes its yearly cycle through the heavens. Beyond its function as a religious book, Les Très Riches Heures also furnishes a picture of life in the territory the duke ruled—a picture designed to flatter the Limbourgs’ patron. For example, the color-ful calendar picture for January (fig. 20-5) portrays a New Year’s reception at court. The duke appears as magnanimous host, his head circled by the fire screen, almost halolike, behind him. His chamberlain stands next to him, urging the guests forward with the words “aproche, aproche,” words that call attention to the Lim-bourgs’ success in creating the illusion of deep spatial recession. The lavish spread of food on the table and the large tapestry on the back wall augment the richness of the setting and the occasion By contrast, the illustration for October (fig. 20-6) focuses on the peasantry. Here, the Limbourg brothers depicted a sower, a man plowing on horseback, and washerwomen, along with city dwell-ers, who promenade in front of the Louvre, the French king’s resi-dence at the time, now one of the world’s great art museums. (Paris was not then the highly populated urban center it is today. Open fields surrounded the royal palace.) The peasants do not appear dis-contented as they go about their various tasks. Surely this imagery flattered the duke’s sense of himself as a compassionate master. The growing artistic interest in naturalism is evident here in the careful way the painter recorded the architectural details of the Louvre and in the convincing shadows of the people and objects (such as the archer scarecrow and the horse) in the scene. As a whole, Les Très Riches Heures reinforced the image of the duke of Berry as a devout man, cultured bibliophile (“lover of books”), sophisticated art patron, and powerful and magnanimous leader. Further, the expanded range of subject matter, especially the prominence of genre subjects in a religious book, reflected the increasing integration of religious and secular concerns in both art and life during the 15th century. Although all three Limbourg brothers worked on Les Très Riches Heures, art historians have never been able to ascertain definitively which brother painted which images. (One scholar has suggested that because the book was left unfinished at the time of the brothers’ deaths, some of the details are the work of a fourth artist, who completed the illustrations around the middle of the century.) Given the common practice of collaboration on artistic projects at this time, however, the determination of specific author-ship is not very important. Together, the Très Riches Heures illumi-nators reoriented the art of manuscript illumination to approximate more closely the art of panel painting, treating the pages of books as if they were windows onto the world of 15th-century Europe. Mary of Burgundy. The Limbourgs’ most accomplished suc-cessor at the end of the century was an anonymous illuminator known as the Master of Mary of Burgundy. Some scholars identify him as Alexander Bening (ca. 1444–1519) of Ghent, a painter in the circle of Hugo van der Goes (fig. 20-16). The two facing pages illustrated here (fig. 20-7) are the opening full-page illumination and one of the daily prayers in the private devotional Book of Hours that belonged to Mary, the last duchess of Burgundy (r. 1477–1482) and daughter of Charles the Bold. She is the elegantly dressed woman sitting in a private chapel with her pet dog on her lap, reading from a prayer book of the same size and format as the one in which her portrait appears. On a ledge to her left are her rosary beads and a tall vase with purple irises—flowers associated tempera and oil painting The generic words paint and pigment encompass a wide range of substances that artists have used through the ages. Fresco aside (see “Fresco Painting,” page 428), during the 14th century, egg tempera was the material of choice for most painters, both in Italy and northern Europe. Tempera consists of egg combined with a wet paste of ground pigment. In his influential 1437 guidebook Il libro dell’arte (The Handbook of Art; see “Imitation and Emulation in Renaissance Art,” page 606), Cennino Cennini (ca. 1370–ca. 1440) noted that artists mixed only the egg yolk with the ground pigment, but analyses of paintings from this period have revealed that some artists chose to use the entire egg. Images painted with tempera have a velvety sheen. Artists usually applied tempera to the painting surface with a light touch because thick application of the pig-ment mixture would result in premature cracking and flaking. Some artists used oil paints (powdered pigments mixed with lin-seed oil) as far back as the eighth century, but not until the early 1400s did oil painting become widespread. Melchior Broederlam (fig. 20-4), Robert Campin (fig. 20-8), and other Flemish artists were among the first to employ oils extensively, often mixing them with tempera, as Broederlam did. (Italian painters soon followed suit, underscoring that artistic exchanges across the Alps went in both directions during the Renaissance.) The discovery of better drying components in the early 15th century enhanced the setting capabilities of oils. Rather than apply these oils in the light, flecked brushstrokes that the tempera technique encouraged, artists laid down the oils in transparent layers, or glazes, over opaque or semiopaque underlayers. In this manner, painters could build up deep and subtly gradated tones through repeated glazing. Unlike works in tempera, whose surface dries quickly due to water evaporation, oils dry more uniformly and slowly, giving the artist time to rework areas. This flexibility must have been particularly appealing to artists who worked very deliberately, such as Campin, Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Wey-den, and the other Flemish masters discussed in this chapter, as well as the Italian Leonardo da Vinci (figS. 22-2 and 22-5). Leonardo also preferred oil paint because its gradual drying process and consistency enabled him to blend the pigments, thereby creating the impressive sfu-mato (smoky) effect that contributed to his fame. Moreover, while dry-ing, oil paints smooth out, erasing any trace of the brush that applied the paint. Oil paints also produce a glowing surface, creating a rich visual effect unlike the duller sheen of tempera. Both tempera and oils can be applied to various surfaces. Through the early 16th century, wood panels served as the foundation for most paintings. Italians painted on poplar. Northern European artists used oak, lime, beech, chestnut, cherry, pine, and silver fir. Local availability of these timbers determined the choice of wood. Linen canvas became increasingly popular in the late 16th century. Although evidence sug-gests that artists did not intend permanency for their early images on canvas, the material proved particularly useful in areas such as Venice where high humidity warped wood panels and made fresco unfeasible. Furthermore, until artists began to use wood bars to stretch the can-vas to form a taut surface, canvas paintings could be rolled and were lighter and more compact and therefore more easily portable than wood panels. with the Virgin Mary. The masterful representation of rich fabrics, Mary’s transparent veil, and the still life of flowers all attest to this painter’s skill and powers of observation. Even more remarkable is the illuminator’s meticulously detailed depiction of the Gothic church seen through the window of Mary’s chapel, especially because the manuscript page is only half the size of Jan van Eyck’s Madonna in a Church (fig. 20-10A). The scene presented to the viewer through the chapel window within the page’s “window onto the world”—a brilliant conception in itself—is the realization of Mary’s prayers. The duchess has been granted a private audience with the Virgin without any interced-ing priest. She, accompanied by her ladies-in-waiting, kneels before the Virgin, who sits in front of the church altar, attended by angels and holding the Christ Child in her lap. Both holy figures turn their heads to look at the duchess. The illumination has few peers in the history of art as an image of pious devotion. FLANDERS As noted, the greatest single source of income for the Burgundian ducal court came from banking and trade activities in Flanders, ter-ritory that Philip the Bold acquired when he married the Flemish count’s daughter. Flanders was also the leading artistic center of Northern Europe in the 15th century. Master of Flémalle One of the greatest Flemish painters of the generation after Melchior Broederlam was the man known as the Master of Flémalle, whom most art historians identify as Robert Campin (ca. 1375–1444), the leading painter of Tournai, who also worked in the newly popular medium of oil painting (see “Tempera and Oil Painting,” page 574). His most famous work is the Mérode Triptych (fig. 20-8), although it has recently been suggested that the triptych (three-panel painting) is the work of more than one artist and that the wings are a later addition. The question of authorship apart, the painting is one of the many small works of this period produced for private patrons and intended for household prayer. Perhaps the most striking feature of these private devotional images is the integration of religious and secular concerns. For example, artists often presented biblical scenes as taking place in a house (compare fig. 20-1). Religion was such an integral part of Flemish life that separating the sacred from the secular was almost impossible—and undesirable. Furthermore, the presentation in religious art of famil-iar settings and objects no doubt strengthened the direct bond that the patron or viewer felt with biblical figures. The Annunciation, prophesied in Isaiah 7:14, is the subject of the central panel of Campin’s triptych. Unseen by the Virgin, a tiny figure of Christ carrying the cross of his martyrdom and of human salvation enters the room on a ray of light, a potent symbol of the Incarnation and a foreshadowing of what lies ahead for the future Mother of God and her son. The archangel Gabriel approaches Mary, who sits reading inside a well-kept Flemish home. Through the window in the background of the right wing, the viewer sees a local cityscape, as in Rogier van der Weyden’s later Saint Luke (fig. 20-1). The depicted accessories, furniture, and utensils con-firm the locale as Flanders. However, the objects represented are not merely decorative. They also function as religious symbols. The book, extinguished candle, and lilies on the table; the copper basin in the corner niche; the towels, fire screen, and bench all symbolize, in different ways, the Virgin’s purity and her divine mission. In the right panel, Joseph, apparently unaware of the angel’s arrival, has constructed two mousetraps, symbolic of the theologi-cal concept that Christ is bait set in the trap of the world to catch the Devil. The ax, saw, and rod that Campin painted in the fore-ground of Joseph’s workshop not only are tools of the carpenter’s trade but also are mentioned in Isaiah 10:15. In the left panel, the closed garden is symbolic of Mary’s purity, and the flowers Campin included relate to Mary’s virtues, especially humility. The triptych’s donor, Peter Inghelbrecht, a wealthy merchant, and his wife, Margarete Scrynmakers, kneel in the garden and witness the momentous event through an open door. Donor portraits—portraits of the individual(s) who commissioned (or “donated”) the work—became very popular in the 15th century. In this instance, in addi-tion to asking to be represented in their altarpiece, the Inghelbrechts probably specified the subject. Inghelbrecht means “angel bringer,” a reference to Gabriel’s bringing the news of Christ’s birth to Mary in the central panel. Scrynmakers means “cabinet-or shrine-makers,” and probably inspired the workshop scene in the right panel. Jan van eyck In 1425, Jan van Eyck (ca. 1395–1441), the most famous of several internationally renowned Flemish artists, became the court painter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy (r. 1419–1467). In 1431, he moved his studio to Bruges, where the duke maintained his official residence. Ghent Altarpiece. The year Jan arrived in Bruges, he set out to complete the Ghent Altarpiece (figs. 20-9 and 20-10), which, according to the dedicatory inscription, his older brother, Hubert van Eyck (ca. 1385–1426), had begun. Given Jan’s stature today, it is noteworthy that the inscription describes Hubert as an artist “than whom there was no greater” and Jan as “his brother, second in art.” The nearly 12-foot-tall Ghent retable is one of the largest of the 15th century. Jodocus Vyd (d. 1439), diplomat-retainer of Philip the Good, and his wife, Elisabeth Borluut (d. 1443), commissioned the polyptych as the centerpiece of the chapel Vyd built in the Ghent church originally dedicated to Saint John the Baptist (since 1540, Saint Bavo Cathedral). Vyd’s largesse and the political and social connections that the Ghent Altarpiece revealed to its audience contributed to Vyd’s appointment as the city’s burgomeister (chief magistrate; mayor) shortly after the unveiling of the work. Two of the exterior panels (fig. 20-9) depict the donors. The husband and wife, in paired niches with Gothic tracery, kneel with their hands clasped in prayer. They gaze piously at two illusionistically rendered statues (painted in grisaille—that is, solely in gray tones to imitate stone) that reflect the innovative style of Claus Sluter (figs. 20-2 and 20-2A). The sculptures represent Ghent’s patron saint, John the Baptist, and John the Evangelist, who was probably Vyd’s patron saint. The Annunciation appears on the upper register, with a care-ful representation of a Flemish town outside the painted window of the center panel (compare figs. 20-1 and 20-8). In the uppermost arched panels, Jan depicted the Old Testament prophets Zachariah and Micah, along with sibyls, Greco-Roman mythological female prophets whose writings the Church interpreted as prophecies of Christ. An interesting detail is the exchange of words between Gabriel and the Virgin. Jan painted the words of Mary’s response upside down, because they are directed to God in Heaven. When open (fig. 20-10), the altarpiece reveals a richly colored painting of human redemption through Christ. In the upper regis-ter, God the Father—wearing the pope’s triple tiara, with a worldly Flanders 575 Copyright 20-9 Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altar-piece (closed), Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, ca. 1423–1432. Oil on wood, 119 50 × 79 60. Grandiose multipanel painted altarpieces were popular in Flemish churches. Artists decorated both the interiors and exteriors of these polyp-tychs, which often, as here, included donor portraits. 1 ft. 1 ft. 20-10 Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece (open), Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, ca. 1423–1432. Oil on wood, 119 50 × 159 10. In this richly colored painting of salvation from the Original Sin of Adam and Eve, God the Father presides in majesty. The van Eyck brothers used oil paints to render every detail with loving fidelity to appearance. 576 crown at his feet and resplendent in a deep-scarlet mantle—presides in majesty. To God’s right is the Virgin, represented, as in the Gothic age and in a small Jan van Eyck diptych (two-paneled painting; fig. 20-10A), as the queen of Heaven, with a crown of 12 stars on her head. John the Baptist sits to God’s left. To either side is a choir of angels, with an angel playing an organ on the right. Adam and Eve appear in the far panels. The inscriptions in the arches above Mary and Saint John extol the Virgin’s virtue and purity and Saint John’s greatness as the forerunner of Christ (see “Early Christian Saints,” pages 246–247). The inscription above the Lord’s head translates as “This is God, all-powerful in his divine majesty; of all the best, by the gentle-ness of his goodness; the most liberal giver, because of his infinite a second opinion Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife In 1434, Jan van Eyck depicted Giovanni Arnolfini, a Lucca financier who had established himself in Bruges as an agent of the Medici family, and his second wife in their home (fig. 20-11). Arnolfini holds the hand of his spouse, whose name is not known. That much is certain, but the purpose and meaning of the double portrait remain the subject of con-siderable debate, with a few new interpretations having been advanced just during the last several years. According to the traditional interpreta-tion of the painting, Jan recorded the couple taking their marriage vows. As in the Mérode Triptych (fig. 20-8), almost every object portrayed car-ries meaning. For example, the little dog symbolizes fidelity (the com-mon canine name Fido originated from the Latin fidere, “to trust”). The finial (crowning ornament) of the marriage bed at the right is a tiny statue of Saint Margaret, patron saint of childbirth. (The bride is not yet preg-nant, although the fashionable costume she wears makes her appear so.) From the finial hangs a whiskbroom, symbolic of domestic care. Indeed, even the placement of the two figures in the room is meaningful. The woman stands near the bed and well into the room, whereas the man stands near the open window, symbolic of the outside world. Many art historians, however, dispute this interpretation because, among other things, the room in which Arnolfini and his wife stand is a public reception area, not a bedchamber. One scholar has suggested that Arnolfini is conferring legal privileges on his wife to conduct busi-ness in his absence. Another thinks that this may be a memorial portrait of a wife who died in childbirth. In any case, an important aspect of the painting is that the artist functions as a witness to whatever event is taking place. In the back-ground, framed by the arms and joined hands of the two figures, is a convex mirror (complete with its spatial distortion, brilliantly recorded; compare fig. 22-40), in which Jan depicted not only the principals, Arnolfini and his wife, but also two persons who look into the room through the door. (Arnolfini’s raised right hand may be a gesture of greeting to the two men.) One of these must be the artist himself, as the elegant inscription above the mirror, Johannes de Eyck fuit hic (“Jan van Eyck was here”), announces that he was present. The self-portrait also underscores the painter’s self-consciousness as a professional art-ist whose role deserves to be recorded and remembered. generosity.” The step behind the crown at the Lord’s feet bears the inscription “On his head, life without death. On his brow, youth without age. On his right, joy without sadness. On his left, security without fear.” The entire altarpiece amplifies the central theme of salvation. Even though humans, personified by Adam and Eve, are sinful, they will be saved because God, in his infinite love, will sac-rifice his own son for their sake. The panels of the lower register extend the symbolism of the upper. In the center panel, saints arrive from the four corners of the earth through an opulent, flower-spangled landscape. They pro-ceed toward the altar of the Lamb and the octagonal fountain of life (compare fig. 20-2). The book of Revelation passage that recounts the adoration of the Lamb is the main reading on All Saints’ Day (November 1). The Lamb symbolizes the sacrificed son of God, whose heart bleeds into a chalice, while into the fountain spills the “pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne of God and of the Lamb” (Rev. 22:1). On the right, the 1 ft. 20-11 Jan van Eyck, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife, 1434. Oil on wood, 29 90 × 19 10 1 20. National Gallery, London. Jan van Eyck played a major role in establishing portraiture as an important Flemish art form. In this portrait of an Italian financier and his wife, he also portrayed himself in the convex mirror on the rear wall. Flanders Framed paintings Until the mid-20th century, when painters began to affix canvas to simple wood stretcher bars to provide a taut painting surface devoid of orna-mentation, artists considered the frame an integral part of the painting. Frames served a number of functions, some visual, others conceptual. For paintings such as large-scale altarpieces that were part of a larger environment, frames often served to integrate the painting with its sur-roundings. Frames could also be used to reinforce the illusionistic nature of the painted image. For example, the Italian painter Giovanni Bellini, in his San Zaccaria Altarpiece (fig. 22-29), duplicated the carved pilasters of the architectural frame in the painting itself, thereby enhancing the illusion of space and giving the painted figures an enhanced physical presence. In the Ghent Altarpiece, the frame seems to cast shadows on the floor between the angel and Mary in the Annunciation scene (fig. 20-9, top). More commonly, artists used frames specifically to dis-tance the viewer from the (often otherworldly) scene by calling attention to the separation of the image from the viewer’s space. Most 15th-and 16th-century paintings included elaborate frames that the artists themselves helped design and construct. Extant con-tracts reveal that the frame could account for as much as half of the cost of an altarpiece. Frequently, the commissions called for painted or gilded frames, adding to the expense. For small works, artists some-times affixed the frames to the panels before painting, so that the frame was a point of reference as they worked. Occasionally, a single piece of wood served as both panel and frame, and the artist (or, in practice, an assistant) carved the painting surface from the wood, leaving the edges as a frame. Larger images with elaborate frames, such as altarpieces, required the services of a professional woodcarver or stonemason. The painter worked closely with the individual constructing the frame to ensure its appropriateness for the image(s) produced. Unfortunately, over time, many frames have been removed from their paintings. For instance, in 1566 church officials dismantled the Ghent Altarpiece and detached its elaborately carved frame in order to protect the sacred work from Protestant iconoclasts (see “Art and the Reformation,” page 692). As ill luck would have it, when the panels were reinstalled in 1587, no one could find the frame. Sadly, the absence of many of the original frames of old paintings deprives viewers today of the painter’s complete artistic vision. Conversely, when the original frames exist, they sometimes provide essential information, such as the 1 in. 20-12 Jan van Eyck, Man in a Red Turban, 1433. Oil on wood, 19 11 80 × 10 1 40. National Gallery, London. Man in a Red Turban is the first known Western painted portrait in a thousand years in which the sitter looks directly at the viewer. The inscribed frame suggests that it is a self-portrait of Jan van Eyck. subject, name of the painter, and date. For example, the inscriptions on the frame of Jan van Eyck’s Man in a Red Turban (fig. 20-12) state that he painted it on October 21, 1433, and the inclusion of “As I can” and omission of the sitter’s name suggest that the painting is a self-portrait. 12 apostles and a group of martyrs in red robes advance. On the left appear prophets. In the right background come the virgin martyrs, and in the left background the holy confessors approach. On the lower wings, hermits, pilgrims, knights, and judges enter from left and right. They symbolize the four cardinal virtues: Temperance, Prudence, Fortitude, and Justice, respectively. The altarpiece cele-brates the whole Christian cycle from the fall of man to the redemp-tion, presenting the Church triumphant in heavenly Jerusalem. Jan used oil paints to render the entire altarpiece in shim-mering colors that defy reproduction. No small detail escaped the painter. With pristine specificity, he revealed the beauty of the most insignificant object. He depicted the soft texture of hair, the glitter of gold in the heavy brocades, the luster of pearls, and the flash-ing of gems, all with loving fidelity to appearance. This kind of meticulous attention to recording details became a hallmark of Flemish panel painting in the 15th century. Giovanni Arnolfini. Emerging capitalism led to prosperity in Europe’s booming urban centers and fueled in turn the growing bourgeois market for art objects, particularly in Bruges, Antwerp, and, later, Amsterdam. The increased wealth of the merchant class contributed to an expanded market for secular art in addition to religious artworks. It is noteworthy, for example, that both the Mérode Triptych and the Ghent Altarpiece—certainly to be catego-rized as “religious art”—include painted portraits of their donors. These paintings marked a significant revival of portraiture, a genre that had languished since antiquity. Private commissions for por-traits as independent artworks began to multiply as both artists and 578 patrons became interested in the reality (both physical and psycho-logical) that portraits could reveal. In the 15th century, Flemish patrons eagerly embraced the opportunity to have their likenesses painted. The elite wanted to memorialize themselves in their dynastic lines and to establish their identities, ranks, and stations with images far more concrete than heraldic coats of arms. Portraits also served to represent state offi-cials at events they could not attend. Royalty, nobility, and the very rich would sometimes send artists to paint the likeness of a pro-spective bride or groom. For example, when young King Charles VI (r. 1380–1422) of France sought a bride, he dispatched a painter to three different royal courts to make portraits of the candidates. But prosperous merchants also commissioned portraits for their homes. An early example of secular portraiture is Jan van Eyck’s dif-ficult-to-interpret depiction of the banker Giovanni Arnolfini (see “Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife,” page 577). Man in a Red Turban. Whatever the intended meaning of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife, the painting is representative of the growing importance of secular portraiture as an income-producing artistic genre in 15th-century Flanders. In Man in a Red Turban (fig. 20-12), the man whom Jan van Eyck portrayed looks directly at the viewer. This is the first known Western painted portrait in a thousand years where the sitter does so. The level, composed gaze, directed from a true three-quarter head pose, must have impressed observers deeply. The painter created the illu-sion that from whatever angle a viewer observes the face, the eyes return that gaze. Jan, with his considerable observational skill and controlled painting style, injected a heightened sense of specificity into this portrait by including beard stubble, veins in the bloodshot left eye, and weathered, aged skin. Although a definitive identifica-tion of the sitter has yet to be made, most art historians consider Man in a Red Turban a self-portrait, which Jan painted by looking at his image in a mirror (as he depicted himself in the mirror in the Arnolfinis’ home; fig. 20-11). The inscriptions on the frame (see “Framed Paintings,” page 578) reinforce this identification. Across the top, Jan wrote “As I can” in Flemish using Greek letters. One suggestion is that this portrait was a demonstration piece intended for prospective clients, who could compare the painting with the painter and judge what he “could do” in terms of recording a faith-ful likeness. Across the bottom appear the date and a statement in Latin: “Jan van Eyck made me.” The use of both Greek and Latin suggests that the artist viewed himself as both a learned man and a worthy successor to the fabled painters of antiquity. rogier van der Weyden When Jan van Eyck began work on the Ghent Altarpiece, Rogier van der Weyden (fig. 20-1) was an assistant in the work-shop of Robert Campin (fig. 20-8), but the younger Tournai painter’s fame soon eclipsed Campin’s and eventually rivaled Jan’s. Rogier’s renown rested on his skill in recording indi-vidual features and character in his portraits (fig. 20-12a) and especially on the dynamic compositions of his narrative works, which stress human action and drama. He concen-trated on Christian themes, especially those episodes in the life of Jesus that elicited pow-erful emotions—for example, the Crucifixion and Pietà (the Vir-gin Mary cradling the dead body of her son)—moving observers deeply by vividly portraying the sufferings of Christ. 20-12a Van der Weyden, Portrait of a Lady, ca. 1460. Deposition. One of Rogier’s early masterworks is Deposition (fig. 20-13), the center panel of a triptych commissioned by the archers’ guild of Louvain for the church of Notre-Dame hors-les-murs (Church of Our Lady—the Virgin—outside the [town] walls). Rogier acknowledged the patrons of this large painting by incorpo-rating the crossbow (the guild’s symbol) into the decorative trac-ery in the corners. Instead of creating a deep landscape setting, as Jan van Eyck might have, Rogier compressed the figures and action onto a shallow stage with a golden back wall, imitat-ing the large sculptured shrines so popular in the 15th century, of which Jacques de Baerze’s Retable de Champ-mol (fig. 20-3) is one of many Nether-landish examples (compare figs. 20-21 and 20-22). The device admirably served his purpose of expressing max-imum action within a limited space 20-13 Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition, center panel of a triptych from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs, Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435–1442. Oil on wood, 79 2 5 del Prado, Madrid. 80 × 89 7 1 1 ft. 80. Museo Deposition resembles a relief carving in which the biblical figures act out a drama of passionate sorrow as if on a shallow theatrical stage. The painting makes an unforgettable emotional impression. and dramatically confronting the viewer, but the setting of the Cru-cifixion in a box is unrealistic, as is the size of the cross, the arms of which are not wide enough for Jesus’s hands to have been nailed to them. The painting, with the artist’s crisp drawing and precise mod-eling of forms, resembles a stratified relief carving, and the viewer may wonder if this is a painting of the biblical event or a painting of a shrine representing the event. In any case, a series of lateral undu-lating movements gives the group a compositional unity, a formal cohesion that Rogier strengthened by depicting the sorrowful anguish that many of the figures share. Present are the Virgin, sev-eral of her half-sisters, Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Saint John the Evangelist, and Mary Magdalene. The similar poses of Christ and his mother further unify the composition, evoke the shape of the crossbows in the corner tracery, and reflect the belief that Mary suffered the same pain at the Crucifixion as her son. ART AND SOCIETY the artist’s profession in Flanders As they did in Italy (see “Artistic Training,” page 434), guilds controlled artistic production in Flanders. To pursue a craft, individuals had to belong to the guild representing that craft. Painters, for example, sought admission to the Guild of Saint Luke, the patron saint of painters because Luke made a portrait of the Virgin Mary (fig. 20-1). The patron saint of the metalworkers’ guild was Saint Eligius (fig. 20-14), who was a goldsmith before devoting himself to the Church and eventually becom-ing bishop of Tournai. The path to eventual membership in the guild began, for men, at an early age, when the father apprenticed his son in boyhood to a mas-ter, with whom the young aspiring painter lived. The master taught the fundamentals of his craft—how to make implements, prepare panels with gesso (plaster mixed with a binding material), and mix colors, oils, and varnishes. Once the youth mastered these procedures and learned to work in the master’s traditional manner, he usually spent several years working as a journeyman in various cities, observing and absorbing ideas from other masters. He then was eligible to become a master and could apply for admission to the guild. Fees could be very high, espe-cially if an artist was not a citizen of the same city, as was the case, for example, when Petrus Christus of Baerle purchased citizenship in Bruges in order to join that city’s painters’ guild. Sometimes, an art-ist seeking admission to a guild would marry the widow of a member. (A woman could inherit her husband’s workshop, but could not run it.) Guild membership was essential for establishing an artist’s reputation and for obtaining commissions. The guild inspected paintings to evalu-ate workmanship and ensure that its members used quality materials. It also secured adequate payment for its artists’ labor. Women had far fewer opportunities than men to train as artists, in large part because of social and moral constraints that forbade women to reside as apprentices in the homes of male masters. Moreover, from the 16th century, when academic training courses supplemented and then replaced guild training, until the 20th century, women would not as a rule expect or be permitted instruction in figure painting, because it involved dissection of cadavers and study of the nude male model. Flemish women interested in pursuing art as a career—for example, Caterina van Hemessen (fig. 23-16)—most often received tutoring from fathers and husbands who were professionals and whom the women assisted in all the technical procedures of the craft. Despite these Rogier’s extraordinary ability to represent flesh and fabric rivaled Jan van Eyck’s, and few painters, not even Jan, have equaled him in rendering passionate sorrow as it vibrates through a figure or distorts a tearstained face. Rogier’s depictions of the agony of loss in Deposition and of the terror of the damned in Last Judgment (fig. 20-13a) are among the most moving and unforgettable images in religious art. It was probably Rogier whom Michelangelo had in mind when, according to the Portuguese painter Francisco de Hol-landa (1517–1584), the Italian master observed, “Flemish paint-ing [will] please the devout better than any painting of Italy, which will never cause him to shed a tear, whereas that of Flanders will cause him to shed many.”1 20-13a Van der Weyden, Last Judgment, ca. 1443–1451. 1 ft. 20-14 Petrus Christus, A Goldsmith in His Shop, 1449. Oil on wood, 39 30 × 29 100. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Robert Lehman Collection, 1975). Once thought to depict Eligius, the patron saint of goldsmiths, Christus’s painting, made for the Bruges goldsmiths’ guild, is more likely a genre scene of a couple shopping for a wedding ring. obstacles, membership records of the art guilds of Bruges and other cities reveal that a substantial number of Flemish women were able to establish themselves as artists during the 15th century. That they suc-ceeded in negotiating the difficult path to acceptance as professionals is a testament to both their tenacity and their artistic skill. 580 Later Flemish painters Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden were the leading figures of the first generation of “Northern Renaissance” painters. (Art historians usually transfer to Northern Europe, with less validity than in its original usage, the term Renaissance, coined to describe the conscious revival of classical art in Italy.) The second generation of Flemish masters, active during the latter half of the 15th century, had much in common with their illustrious predeces-sors, especially a preference for using oil paints to create naturalistic representations, often, although not always, of traditional Christian subjects for installation in churches. Petrus Christus. One work of uncertain Christian content is A Goldsmith in His Shop (fig. 20-14) by Petrus Christus (ca. 1410–1472), who settled in Bruges in 1444. According to the traditional interpretation, A Goldsmith in His Shop portrays Saint Eligius (who was initially a master goldsmith before committing his life to God) sitting in his stall, showing an elegantly attired couple a selection of rings. The bride’s betrothal girdle lies on the table as a symbol of chastity, and the woman reaches for the ring the goldsmith weighs. The artist’s inclusion of a crystal container for Eucharistic wafers (on the lower shelf to the right of Saint Eligius) and the scales (a ref-erence to the Last Judgment) supports a religious interpretation of this painting and continues the Flemish tradition of imbuing every-day objects with symbolic significance. A halo once encircled the goldsmith’s head, seemingly confirming the religious nature of this scene. Scientists have determined, however, that the halo was a later addition by another artist, and restorers have removed it. Most scholars now think that the painting, although not devoid of religious content, should be seen as a vocational painting of the type often produced for installation in Flemish guild chapels. Although the couple’s presence suggests a marriage portrait, the patrons were probably not the couple portrayed but rather the goldsmiths’ guild in Bruges. Saint Eligius was the patron saint of gold-and silver-smiths, blacksmiths, and metalworkers, all of whom shared a chapel in a building adjacent to their meetinghouse. The reconsecration of this chapel took place in 1449, the same date as the Christus paint-ing. Therefore, it seems probable that the artist painted A Goldsmith in His Shop, which illustrates an economic transaction and focuses on the goldsmith’s profession, specifically for the guild chapel. A guild chapel is also the likely original setting of Rogier van der Weyden’s Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin (fig. 20-1). As noted, in the 15th century, in addition to their primary function as “trade unions,” guilds played an increasingly important role in community life and often became major patrons of art in their cities (see “The Artist’s Profession in Flanders,” page 580). Christus went to great lengths to produce a historically cred-ible image. For example, the variety of objects depicted in the paint-ing serves as advertisement for the goldsmiths’ guild. Included are the goldsmiths’ raw materials (precious stones, beads, crystal, coral, and seed pearls) scattered among finished products (rings, buckles, and brooches). The pewter vessels on the upper shelves are dona-tion pitchers, which town leaders gave to distinguished guests. All these meticulously painted objects not only attest to the centrality and importance of goldsmiths to both the secular and sacred com-munities but also enhance the naturalism of the painting. The con-vex mirror in the foreground showing another couple and a street with houses serves to extend the painting’s space into the viewer’s space, further creating the illusion of reality, as in Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini portrait (fig. 20-11). Dieric Bouts. In Last Supper (fig. 20-15), Dieric Bouts (ca. 1415–1475) of Haarlem chose a different means of suggesting 1 ft. 20-15 Dieric Bouts, Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament, Saint Peter’s, Louvain, Belgium, 1464–1468. Oil on wood, center panel (Last Supper) 69 × 59. The Last Supper, the central panel of this altarpiece, is one of the earliest Northern Renaissance paintings to employ Italian linear perspective. Included are portraits of the work’s Flemish patrons. spatial recession. The painting is the central panel of the Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament, which the Confraternity of the Holy Sacra-ment in Louvain commissioned in 1464. Four years later, Bouts became the city’s offi-cial painter and was asked to produce a series of panels—including Wrongful Beheading of the Count (fig. 20-15a) and Justice of Otto III (fig. 20-15B)—for Louvain’s town hall. Bouts’s Last Supper is one of the earliest Northern Renaissance paintings to employ linear perspective and a vanishing point to create the illusion of depth. All of the central room’s orthogonals (converging diagonal lines imagined to be behind and perpendicular to the picture plane) lead to the vanishing point in the center of the mantelpiece above Jesus’s head. The small side room, however, has its own vanishing point, and neither it nor the vanishing point of the main room falls on the horizon of the landscape (the horizon line) seen through the windows, as in Italian Renaissance paintings composed according 20-15B BoutS, Justice of Otto III, ca. 1470–1473. to the strict rules of linear perspective (see “Linear Perspective,” page 599). In Last Supper, Bouts did not depict the biblical narrative itself but instead presented Jesus in the role of a priest performing the liturgical ritual of the consecration of the Eucharistic wafer. By dividing the apostles into two asymmetrical groups with no one sitting at the middle of the near side of the table, Bouts focused attention on the Savior and the food platter and wine chalice at the table’s center. Bouts’s Last Supper contrasts strongly with other depictions of the same subject, which often represented Jesus’s prediction of Judas’s betrayal or his comforting of John. The Confraternity of the Holy Sacrament dedicated itself to the worship of the Eucharist, and the smaller panels on the altarpiece’s wings depict Old Testament prefigurations of the Eucharist—for example, at the top right, the gathering of manna in the desert and, at bottom left, Jews celebrating Passover (the occasion for Jesus’s final meal). Bouts also added four servants (two looking through the window-like opening in the rear wall and two standing) not mentioned in the New Testament account, all dressed in Flemish attire. These are portraits of the four members of the confraternity who contracted Bouts to paint the altarpiece, continuing the Flemish tradition of inserting into representations of biblical events portraits of the painting’s patrons, first noted in the Mérode Triptych (fig. 20-8), where the Inghelbrechts are also looking into the room from out-side; that is, they are not participants in but witnesses of the biblical event. Hugo van der Goes. By the mid-15th century, Flemish art had achieved renown throughout Europe. The Portinari Altarpiece (fig. 20-16), for example, is a large-scale Flemish work in a family chapel in Florence, Italy. The artist who received the commission was Hugo van der Goes (ca. 1440–1482), who joined the painters’ guild of Ghent as a master in 1467 and served as the guild’s dean from 1473 to 1475. Hugo painted the triptych in Flanders for Tom-maso Portinari, an Italian shipowner and agent in Bruges for the powerful Medici bank of Florence. The altarpiece was Portinari’s gift to the church of Sant’Egidio, and he appears on the wings with his family and their patron saints, who are much larger than the donors. The main panel, Adoration of the Shepherds, depicts a sub-ject based on the 14th-century vision of a Swedish saint in which Mary, instead of cradling her newborn son, kneels solemnly to join Joseph, the angels, and the shepherds in adoring the infant Savior, who lies on the ground and glows with divine light. In order to situate the main actors at the center of the panel, Hugo tilted the ground, a compositional device he may have derived from the tilted stage floors of 15th-century mystery plays. Three shepherds enter 1 ft. 20-16 Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds (Portinari Altarpiece, open), from Sant’Egidio, Florence, Italy, ca. 1473–1478. Tempera and oil on wood, center panel 89 3 1 20 × 109, each wing 89 3 1 20 × 49 7 1 20. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. This altarpiece is a rare instance of the awarding of a major commission in Italy to a Flemish painter. The Florentines admired Hugo’s realistic details and brilliant portrayal of human character from the right rear. Hugo represented them in attitudes of wonder, piety, and gaping curiosity. Their lined faces, work-worn hands, and uncouth dress and manner indicate that they are common folk, very different than the three magi who will soon come to adore the newborn Jesus. The architecture and a continuous Northern European land-scape unify the three panels. (The bare trees of the setting estab-lish that it is winter, the season of Christ’s birth.) Symbols surface throughout the altarpiece. Iris and columbine flowers are emblems of the sorrows of the Virgin. The angels represent the 15 joys of Mary. A sheaf of wheat stands for Bethlehem (the “house of bread” in Hebrew), a reference to the Eucharist. The harp of David, embla-zoned over the building’s portal in the middle distance (just to the right of the Virgin’s head), signifies the ancestry of Christ. To stress the meaning and significance of the illustrated event, Hugo revived medieval pictorial devices. Small scenes shown in the background of the altarpiece represent (from left to right) the journey of Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem, the annunciation to the shepherds, and the arrival of the magi. Hugo’s variation in the scale of his figures to differentiate them by their importance to the central event also reflects older traditions. Still, he put a vigorous, penetrating realism to work in a new direction, characterizing human beings according to their social level while showing their common humanity. After Portinari placed the altarpiece in his family’s chapel in the Florentine church of Sant’Egidio, it created a considerable stir among Italian artists. Although the painting may have seemed unstructured to the Italians and the employing of hierarchy of scale old fashioned, Hugo’s masterful technique and what the Floren-tines deemed incredible realism in representing drapery, flowers, animals, and, above all, human character and emotion made a deep impression on them. At least one Florentine artist, Domenico Ghir-landaio (figs. 21-26 and 21-27), paid tribute to the Flemish master by using Hugo’s most striking motif, the adoring shepherds, in one of his own Nativity paintings. Hans Memling. Hugo’s contemporary, Hans Memling (ca. 1430–1494), may have trained as a painter in Rogier van der Weyden’s studio. He became a citizen of Bruges in 1465 and received numer-ous commissions from the city’s wealthy merchants, Flemish and foreign alike. He specialized in portraits of his patrons (one of whom was Tommaso Portinari; fig. 20-18A) and images of the Madonna. Memling’s many paintings of the Virgin portray young, slight, pretty princesses, each holding a doll-like infant Jesus. The center panel of the Saint John Altarpiece is Virgin with Saints and Angels (fig. 20-17). The patrons of this altarpiece—two brothers and two sisters of the order of the Hospital of Saint John in Bru-ges—appear on the exterior side panels (not illustrated). In the main panel, two angels, one playing a musical instrument and the other holding a book, flank the Virgin. To the sides of Mary’s throne stand Saints John the Baptist on the left and John the Evangelist on the right. Seated in the foreground are Saints Catherine and Barbara. This gathering celebrates the mystic marriage of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, one of many virgin saints believed to have entered into a spiritual marriage with Christ. As one of the most revered virgins of Christ, Saint Catherine provided a model of devotion that resonated with women viewers (especially nuns). The altarpiece exudes an opu-lence that results from the rich colors, the meticulously depicted tap-estries and brocades, and the serenity of the figures. The composition 1 ft. 20-17 Hans Memling, Virgin with Saints and Angels, center panel of the Saint John Altarpiece, Hospitaal Sint Jan, Bruges, Belgium, 1479. Oil on wood, center panel 59 7 3 40 × 59 7 3 40, each wing 59 7 3 40 × 29 7 1 80. Memling specialized in images of the Madonna. His Saint John Altarpiece exudes an opulence that results from the sparkling and luminous oil colors and the realistic depiction of rich tapestries and brocades 20-18 Hans Memling, Diptych of Martin van Nieuwenhove, 1487. Oil on wood, each panel 19 5 3 Bruges. 80 × 19 10. Memlingmuseum, In this diptych, the Virgin and Child pay a visit to the home of 23-year-old Martin van Nieuwenhove. A round convex mirror reflects the three figures and unites the two halves of the diptych spatially. is balanced and serene, the color sparkling and luminous, and the execution of the highest technical quality. Memling combined portraiture and Madonna imagery again in a much less ambitious—and more typical—work (fig. 20-18) that he painted for Martin van Nieuwenhove (1464–1500). The smaller scale of the private commission and its much more intimate character underscore the different approaches that painters regu-larly took when producing artworks for different kinds of patrons and for public versus private settings. Martin van Nieuwenhove was a member of an important Bruges family that held various posts in the civic government. He himself served as burgomeister of Bruges in 1497. The painting takes the form of a diptych, with the patron portrayed on the right wing praying to the Madonna and Child on the left wing, a format invented by Rogier van der Weyden. Accord-ing to inscriptions on the frames, van Nieuwenhove commissioned the work in 1487 when he was 23 years old. He died only 13 years later, 3 years after becoming mayor. The format of the van Nieuwenhove diptych follows the pat-tern that Memling used earlier for his wedding triptych Tom-maso Portinari and Maria Baroncelli (fig. 20-18a) but with only a single (male) portrait. (The lost central section of the Portinari triptych probably closely resembled the van Nieu-wenhove Madonna and Child.) Memling’s portrayals of Mary and Jesus consistently feature a tender characterization of the young Virgin and her nude infant son. Here, however, Memling set both the Madonna and her patron in the interior of a well-appointed Flemish home featuring stained-glass windows. The window to the left of the Virgin’s head bears van Nieuwenhove’s coat of arms. The window behind the donor depicts his patron saint, Martin of Tours. These precisely recorded details identify the home as van Nieuwenhove’s (the Minnewater Bridge in Bru-ges is visible through the open window), and the Madonna and Child have honored him by coming to his private residence. Even Saint Luke had to go to the Virgin’s home to paint her portrait (fig. 20-1), but the conceit is a familiar one in Flemish painting. An early example is the Annunciation taking place in the home of Peter Inghelbrecht in Robert Campin’s Mérode Triptych (fig. 20-8). In the Memling portrait diptych, the Christ Child sits on the same ledge as the donor’s open prayer book. Also uniting the two wings of the diptych is the round con-vex mirror behind the Vir-20-18a MeMling, Tommaso Porti-nari and Maria Baroncelli, ca. 1470. gin’s right shoulder in which the viewer sees the reflection of the Virgin’s back and van Nieuwenhove as well as the rest of the room (compare figs. 20-11 and 20-14). 584 FRANCE In contrast to the prosperity and peace that Flanders enjoyed dur-ing the 15th century, in France the Hundred Years’ War crippled economic enterprise and prevented political stability. The anarchy of war and the weakness of the kings gave rise to a group of duch-ies, each with significant power and the resources to commission major artworks. The strongest and wealthiest of these has already been examined—the duchy of Burgundy, which controlled Flanders, as well as the duchy of Berry in France. The French dukes of Bour-bon and Nemours as well as members of the French royal court were also important art patrons. In addition to illustrated books, such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (figs. 20-5 and 20-6), inde-pendent paintings were popular in France, as in Flanders, for private devotional use. The preferred medium was oil paint on wood panels. Jean Fouquet. Among the French artists whose paintings were in high demand was Jean Fouquet (ca. 1425–1478). Fouquet’s workshop was in Tours, and he received important commissions from King Charles VII (r. 1422–1461, the patron and client of Jacques Coeur; fig. 13-31) and from the duke of Nemours and other elite members of the French aristocracy. Fouquet painted a diptych (fig. 20-19) for Étienne Chevalier, who, despite his lowly birth as the son of one of Charles VII’s secretaries, rose to become royal treasurer in 1452. In the left panel of the Melun Diptych (named for its original location in Melun Cathedral), Chevalier appears with his patron saint, Saint Stephen (Étienne in French). Appropriately, Fouquet’s donor portrait of Chevalier depicts his prominent patron as devout—kneeling, with hands clasped in prayer. The represen-tation of the pious donor with his standing saint recalls Flemish art, as do the three-quarter stances and the realism of Chevalier’s portrait. The artist portrayed Saint Stephen, whose head also has a portraitlike quality, holding the stone symbolizing his martyrdom (death by stoning) atop a volume of the holy scriptures, thereby ensuring that viewers can properly identify the saint. Fouquet ren-dered the entire image in meticulous detail and included a highly ornamented architectural setting. In its original diptych form (the two panels are now in differ-ent museums), the viewer would follow the gaze of Chevalier and Saint Stephen over to the right panel, which depicts the Virgin Mary and Christ Child in a most unusual way—with marblelike flesh, sur-rounded by red and blue cherubs (chubby winged child angels). The juxtaposition of these two images enabled the patron to bear wit-ness to the sacred. The integration of sacred and secular (especially the political or personal), prevalent in other Northern Renaissance artworks, also emerges here, which complicates the reading of this diptych. Agnès Sorel (1421–1450), the mistress of Charles VII, was Fouquet’s model for the Virgin Mary, whose left breast is exposed, presumably to nurse the infant Jesus, but she does not look at her son or the viewer. (Mary as nursing mother is a not uncommon way of representing the Virgin in Northern Europe; compare fig. 20-1.) Chevalier commissioned this painting after Sorel’s death, probably by poisoning while pregnant with the king’s child. Thus, in addition to the religious interpretation of this diptych, there is surely a personal 1 ft. 1 ft. 20-19 Jean Fouquet, Melun Diptych, ca. 1452. Left wing: Étienne Chevalier and Saint Stephen. Oil on wood, 39 1 Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin. Right wing: Virgin and Child. Oil on wood, 39 11 Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp. 40 × 29 9 1 20 × 29 9 1 20. 20. Koninklijk Fouquet’s meticulous representation of a pious kneeling donor with a standing patron saint recalls Flemish painting, as do the three-quarter stances and the realism of the donor’s portrait head 20-20 Konrad Witz, Miraculous Draft of Fish, exterior wing of Altarpiece of Saint Peter, from the Chapel of Notre-Dame des Maccabées, Cathedral of Saint Peter, Geneva, Switzerland, 1444. Oil on wood, 49 30 × 59 10. Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Geneva. Konrad Witz set this biblical story on Lake Geneva. The painting is one of the first 15th-century works depicting a specific locale and is noteworthy for the painter’s skill in rendering water effects. 1 ft. and political narrative here as well, made all the more complex given that Sorel gave birth to three of the king’s daughters, but never a son. HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Because the Holy Roman Empire (whose core was Germany) did not participate in the drawn-out saga of the Hundred Years’ War, its economy remained stable and prosperous. Without a domi-nant court to commission artworks, wealthy merchants and clergy became the primary German art patrons during the 15th century. panel painting The art of the early Northern Renaissance in the Holy Roman Empire displays a pronounced stylistic diversity. Some artists fol-lowed developments in Flemish painting, and large-scale altar-pieces featuring naturalistically painted biblical themes were familiar sights in German churches. Konrad Witz. Among the most notable 15th-century German altarpieces is the Altarpiece of Saint Peter, painted by Konrad Witz (ca. 1400–1446) for the chapel of Notre-Dame des Maccabées in the Cathedral of Saint Peter in Geneva. Signed by “Magister Con-radus of Basel” and dated 1444, the altarpiece is a triptych featuring Witz’s paintings on both the exterior and interior. Miraculous Draft of Fish (fig. 20-20) appears on one of the exterior wings. The other (not illustrated) depicts the release of Saint Peter from prison. The central panel is lost. On the interior wings, Witz painted scenes of the adoration of the magi and of Saint Peter’s presentation of the donor (Bishop François de Mies) to the Virgin and Child. Miraculous Draft of Fish shows Peter, the first pope, unsuccessfully trying to emulate Christ walking on water. The choice of this episode from among oth-ers in Peter’s life (see “Early Christian Saints,” pages 246–247) may be a commentary on the part of Witz’s patron, the Geneva cardinal, on the limited power of the pope in Rome. The painting is particularly significant because of the land-scape’s prominence. Witz showed his considerable skill in the recording of water effects—the shimmering sky on the slowly mov-ing lake surface, the mirrored reflections of the figures in the boat, and the transparency of the shallow water in the foreground. He observed and represented the landscape so carefully that art histo-rians have been able to determine the exact location shown. Witz presented a view of the shores of Lake Geneva, with the town of Geneva on the right and Le Môle Mountain in the dis-tance behind Christ’s head. This painting is one of the first 15th-century works depict-ing a specific, identifiable site. The work of other leading German painters of the mid-15th century—for exam-ple, Stefan Lochner (ca. 1400–1451)—retained medieval features to a much greater degree, as is immediately evident in a comparison between Witz’s landscape and Lochner’s Madonna in the Rose Gar-den (fig. 20-20a). 586 CHAPTER 20 Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Northern Europe Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 20-20a lochner, Madonna in the Rose Garden, ca. 1435–1440. sculpture As in Flanders (fig. 20-3), in the Holy Roman Empire many of the leading 15th-century artists specialized in carving large wood retables. These grandiose sculpted altarpieces reveal the lingering power of the Late Gothic style. Veit Stoss. The sculptor Veit Stoss (ca. 1447–1533) trained in the Upper Rhine region, possibly in Strasbourg, but settled in Kraków (in present-day Poland) in 1477. In that year, he began work on a monumental altarpiece for the church of Saint Mary in Kraków, paid for by the city’s citizens. In the central boxlike shrine is Death and Assumption of the Virgin (fig. 20-21), peopled by huge carved, painted, and gilded figures, some 9 feet high. On both the outer and inner faces of the wings, Stoss portrayed scenes from the lives of Christ and Mary. The altar forcefully expresses the intense piety of Gothic culture in its late phase, when artists used every figural and ornamental motif in the repertoire of Gothic art to heighten the emotion and glorify sacred events. In the center panel of the Kraków altarpiece, Christ’s disciples congregate around the Virgin, who collapses, dying. One of them supports her, while another wrings his hands in grief. Above, Mary rises to Heaven with the resurrected Christ. Stoss posed others in attitudes of woe and psychic shock, striving for realism in every minute detail. He engulfed the figures in restless, twisting, and curving swaths of drapery whose broken and writhing lines unite the whole tableau in a vision of agitated emotion. The artist’s massing of sharp, broken, and pierced forms that dart flamelike through the composition—at once unifying and animating it—recalls the design principles of Late Gothic architecture (fig. 13-28). Indeed, in the Kraków altar-piece, Stoss merged sculpture and architecture, enhancing their union with paint and gilding. The Kraków altarpiece gives modern viewers the opportunity to appreciate the polychromy that was standard in ancient and medieval sculpture in both wood and stone. Examples such as this one are unfortunately rare. The vast majority of preserved statues and reliefs from antiquity and the Middle Ages give a false impres-sion of their original appearance (compare figs. 3-13A and 5-63A) because the paint has disappeared. 10 ft. 20-21 Veit Stoss, Death and Assumption of the Virgin, center panel of the Altarpiece of the Virgin Mary (with wings open), Church of Saint Mary, Kraków, Poland, 1477–1489. Painted and gilded lime-wood, central panel 239 90 high. In this huge painted and gilded sculptured wood altarpiece, Stoss used every figural and ornamental element from the vocabulary of Gothic art to heighten the emotion and glorify the sacred event. 20-22 Tilman Riemenschneider, Assumption of the Virgin (Creglingen Altarpiece), Herrgottskirche, Creglingen, Germany, ca. 1495–1505. Lime-wood, 309 20 high. Riemenschneider specialized in carving large unpainted wood retables. His works feature intricate Gothic trac-ery and religious figures whose bodies are almost lost within their swirling garments. into fluid motion by employing an endless and restless line running through the garments of the figures. The draperies float and flow around bodies lost within them, serving not as descrip-tions but as design elements that tie the figures to one another and to the framework. A look of psychic strain, a facial expression common in Riemenschneider’s work, heightens the spiritu-ality of the figures, immaterial and weightless as they appear. Graphic arts 10 ft. A new age blossomed in the 15th century with a sudden technological advance that had wide-spread effects—the invention by Johannes Gutenberg (ca. 1400–1468) of moveable type around 1450 and the development of the print-ing press. Printing had been known in China centuries before, but had never fostered, as it did in 15th-century Europe, a revolution in written communication and in the generation and man-agement of information. Printing provided new and challenging media for artists, and the earli-est form was the woodcut. Artists produced inex-pensive woodcuts such as the Buxheim Saint Christopher (fig. 20-22a) before the development of moveable-type print-ing. But when the im-proved economy and a rise in literacy necessi-tated the production of illustrated books on a grand scale, artists met the challenge of bringing the woodcut picture onto the same letterpress text pages (see “How to Illustrate Printed Books,” page 589). 20-22a Buxheim Saint Christopher, 1423(?). Martin Schongauer. The woodcut medium hardly had matured when printmakers intro-duced the technique of engraving (see “Engrav-Tilman Riemenschneider. Assumption of the Virgin is also the center panel of the Creglingen Altarpiece (fig. 20-22), carved by Tilman Riemenschneider (ca. 1460–1531) of Würzburg for a parish church in Creglingen, Germany. Riemenschneider incor-porated intricate Gothic forms, especially in the 30-foot-tall altar-piece’s elaborate canopy, but unlike Stoss, he did not paint the figures or the background, relying instead purely on sculptural form. The Würzburg master succeeded in setting the whole design ing and Etching,” page 590). Begun in the 1430s and well developed by 1450, engraving proved much more flexible than woodcut. Predictably, in the second half of the century, engraving began to replace the woodcut process for making both book illustrations and widely popular single prints. Not surprisingly, many of the earli-est engravers were professional goldsmiths, who easily applied their training in incising designs into gold and silver jewelry to the new art form. how to illustrate printed Books With the invention of moveable type in the 15th century and the new widespread availability of paper from commercial mills, the art of print-making developed rapidly in Europe. A print is an artwork created by transferring a design on a metal plate or a wood or stone block to a sheet of paper. Prints are usually produced in multiple impressions. The set of prints that an artist creates from a single block or plate is called an edition. Like the manufacturing of books on a press, the printmaking process involves the transfer of ink from a printing surface to paper. This can be accomplished in several ways. The oldest and simplest is the relief method—carving the design into a surface, usually a soft wood, such as pear. Relief print-ing requires artists to conceptualize their images in reverse—that is, they must draw mirror images of the intended design on the wood block. They then remove the surface areas around the drawn lines using a gouging instrument. Thus when the printmaker inks the ridges that correspond to the original (reversed) drawing, the hollow areas remain dry, and a correctly oriented image results when the artist presses the printing block against paper. Because artists produce woodcuts through a subtractive process (removing parts of the mate-rial), it is difficult to create very thin, fluid, and closely spaced lines. Moreover, if the ridges are too thin, they will break during printing. As a result, woodcut prints (for example, figS. I-9, 20-22A, and 20-23) tend to exhibit stark contrasts between the dark lines and the blank background. During the later 15th century, publishers realized that the wood-cut was the ideal medium for solving the problem of illustrating their new printed books. The new technology quickly led to the demise of the manuscript illuminator as well as the scribe, both of whom had been essential for the production of illustrated books through the late Middle Ages, whether they were monks working in monastic scriptoria or lay professionals employed in the for-profit workshops of Paris and other cities. The most ambitious early effort to produce low-cost mass-produced printed books was the so-called Nuremberg Chronicle, a history of the world produced in Nuremberg by anton koBerger (ca. 1445–1513), with more than 650 illustrations furnished by the workshop of Michael WolgeMut (1434–1519). The hand-colored page illustrated here (fig. 20-23) represents Madeburga (modern Magde-burg, Germany). The blunt, simple lines of the woodcut technique give a detailed perspective of Magdeburg, its harbor and shipping, its walls and towers, its churches and municipal buildings, and a statue-topped columnar monument. Despite the numerous architectural structures, this illustration is not an accurate depiction of the city but the prod-uct of the artist’s fanciful imagination. Wolgemut often used the same image to illustrate different cities, even those with very little in common—for example, Verona, Italy, and Damascus, Syria. This depiction of Magdeburg is a generic view of a late medieval German town, not a portrait of a specific place. Regardless, the Nuremberg Chronicle is a monument to a new craft, which expanded in concert with the art of the printed book. 20-23 Michael Wolgemut and workshop, Madeburga, page from the Nurem-berg Chronicle, 1493. Woodcut, 19 6 1 80 × 29 15 80. Printed by Anton Koberger. The Nuremberg Chronicle is an early example of wood-cut illustrations in printed books. The more than 650 pictures include detailed views of towns, but they are generic rather than specific portrayals. 1 engraving and etching In contrast to the production of relief prints, in the intaglio method of printmaking, the artist incises (cuts) the lines on a metal plate, often copper, rather than cuts away the area around the lines, as the relief printer does. The image can be created on the plate manually (engrav-ing or drypoint; for example, fig. 20-24) using a tool (a burin or stylus) or chemically (etching; for example, fig. 25-16). In the etching process, an acid bath eats into the exposed parts of the plate where the artist has drawn through an acid-resistant coating. When the artist inks the surface of the intaglio plate and wipes it clean, the ink is forced into the incisions. Then the artist runs the plate and paper through a roller press, and the paper absorbs the remaining ink, creating the print. Because the artist “draws” the image onto the plate, intaglio prints differ in char-acter from relief prints, such as woodcuts. Engravings, drypoints, and etchings generally present a wider variety of linear effects, as is imme-diately evident in a comparison of the roughly contemporaneous wood-cut (fig. 20-23) by Michael Wolgemut and an engraving (fig. 20-24) by Martin Schongauer. Intaglio prints also often reveal to a greater extent evidence of the artist’s touch, the result of the hand’s changing pressure and shifting directions. The paper and inks that artists use also affect the finished look of the printed image. During the 15th and 16th centuries, European print-makers used papers produced from cotton and linen rags that paper-makers mashed with water into a pulp. The papermakers then applied a thin layer of this pulp to a wire screen and let it dry to create the paper. As contact with Asia increased, printmakers made greater use of what was called Japan paper (of mulberry fibers) and China paper. Artists, then as now, could select from a wide variety of inks. The type and pro-portion of the ink ingredients affect the consistency, color, and oiliness of inks, which various papers absorb differently. Paper is lightweight, and the portability of prints has been an important factor in their appeal to artists. The opportunity to produce numerous impressions from the same print surface also made printmak-ing attractive to 15th-and 16th-century artists. In addition, prints can be sold at much lower prices than paintings or sculptures. Consequently, prints reached a far wider audience than did one-of-a-kind artworks. The number and quality of existing 15th-and 16th-century European prints attest to the importance of the new print medium. 20-24 Martin Schongauer, Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons, ca. 1480. Engraving, 19 1 40 × 90. Fondazione Magnani Rocca, Corte di Mamiano. Schongauer was the most skilled of the early masters of metal engraving. By using a burin to incise lines in a copper plate, he was able to create a marvelous variety of tonal values and textures. 1 in. Martin Schongauer (ca. 1430–1491) of Colmar, a painter and the son of a goldsmith, was the most skilled and subtle North-ern European master of metal engraving. His Saint Anthony Tor-mented by Demons (fig. 20-24) shows both the versatility of the medium and the artist’s mastery of it. The stoic saint is caught in a revolving thornbush of spiky demons, who claw and tear at him furiously. With unsurpassed skill and subtlety, Schongauer incised lines of varying thickness and density into a metal plate and cre-ated marvelous distinctions of tonal values and textures—from smooth skin to rough cloth, from the furry and feathery to the hairy and scaly. The use of cross-hatching (sets of engraved lines at right angles) to describe forms, which Schongauer probably devel-oped, became standard among German graphic artists. The Italians preferred parallel hatching (fig. 21-29) and rarely adopted cross-hatching, which, in keeping with the general Northern Renaissance approach to art, tends to describe the surfaces of things rather than their underlying structures. Schongauer probably engraved Saint Anthony around 1480. By then, the political geography of Europe had changed dramatically. Charles the Bold, who had assumed the title of duke of Burgundy in 1467, died in 1477, bringing to an end the Burgundian dream of forming a strong middle kingdom between France and the Holy Roman Empire. After Charles’s death at the battle of Nancy, the French monarchy reabsorbed the southern Burgundian lands, and the Netherlands passed to the Holy Roman Empire by virtue of the dynastic marriage of Charles’s daughter, Mary of Burgundy (fig. 20-7), to Maximilian of Habsburg, inaugurating a new political and artistic era in Northern Europe, examined in Chapter 23. The next two chapters, however, explore Italian developments in painting, sculpture, and architecture during the 15th and 16th centuries. 590 French ducal courts ■ The most powerful rulers north of the Alps during the first three quarters of the 15th century were the dukes of Burgundy. They controlled Flanders, which derived its wealth from wool and banking, and were great art patrons. Duke Philip the Bold (r. 1363–1404) endowed the Carthusian monastery at Champmol, near Dijon, which became a ducal mausoleum. The head of Philip’s sculptural workshop was Claus Sluter, whose Well of Moses features innovative statues of prophets with portraitlike features and realistic costumes. ■ In the 15th century, Northern European artists popularized the use of oil paints on wood panels. By superimposing translucent glazes, painters could create richer colors than possible using tempera or fresco. One of the earliest examples of oil painting is Melchior Broederlam’s wings of the Retable de Champmol, painted for Philip the Bold. Carved wood narrative reliefs by Jacques de Baerze fill the retable’s interior. ■ The Limbourg brothers expanded the illusionistic capabilities of manuscript illumination in the Book of Hours they produced for Jean, duke of Berry (r. 1360–1416) and brother of King Charles V (r. 1364–1380). Their full-page calendar pictures alternately represent the nobility and the peasantry, always in seasonal, naturalistic settings with realistically painted figures. Flanders ■ A major art form in Flemish churches and private homes alike was the altarpiece with folding wings. In Robert Campin’s Mérode Triptych, the Annunciation takes place in a Flemish home. As is typical of “Northern Renaissance” art, the everyday objects in the triptych have symbolic significance. The largest altarpiece of the era is the Ghent Altarpiece, begun by Hubert van Eyck and completed by his brother Jan. ■ Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, and others established portraiture as an important art form in 15th-century Flanders. Their subjects were successful businessmen, both Flemish and foreign, and occasionally themselves. Jan portrayed himself wearing a red turban, and Rogier represented himself in the guise of Saint Luke drawing the Virgin. ■ Among the other major Flemish painters were Petrus Christus and Hans Memling of Bruges, Dieric Bouts of Louvain, and Hugo van der Goes of Ghent, all of whom produced both altarpieces for churches and portraits for the homes of wealthy merchants. van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece, ca. 1423–1432 de Baerze, Retable de Champmol, 1399 Limbourg brothers, Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1413–1416 France and the holy roman empire ■ During the 15th century, the Hundred Years’ War crippled the French economy, but dukes and mem-bers of the royal court still commissioned some notable artworks. French court art—for example, Jean Fouquet’s Melun Diptych—owes a large debt to Flemish painting in style and technique as well as in the integration of sacred and secular themes. ■ The Late Gothic style remained popular in 15th-century Germany for large carved wood retables fea-turing highly emotive figures amid Gothic tracery. The leading sculptors were Veit Stoss and Tilman Riemenschneider. ■ The major German innovation of the 15th century was the development of the printing press, which publishers soon used to produce books with woodcut illustrations. Woodcuts are relief prints in which the artist carves out the areas around the lines to be printed. ■ German artists, such as Martin Schongauer, were the earliest masters of engraving. The intaglio technique enables a wider variety of linear effects because the artist incises the image directly onto a metal plate. Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493 Fouquet 21-1a Inspired by a poem by Angelo Poliziano, Botticelli painted Birth of Venus for the Medici between 1484 and 1486. At the left, Zephyrus, carrying Chloris, blows Venus on a cockleshell to Cyprus.  21-1b Botticelli’s revival of the theme of the female nude, largely absent from medieval art, was consistent with the Quattrocento view that beholding physical beauty prompts the contemplation of spiritual beauty. 1 ft. 21-1 Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus, ca. 1484–1486. Tempera on canvas, 59 90 × 99 20. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.  21-1c Awaiting the newborn goddess of love on her sacred island is the nymph Pomona, who runs to meet Venus with a brocaded mantle. Her draperies undulate loosely in the gentle gusts of wind. Copyright

I. Définition de la révolution industrielle La révolution industrielle est une période de profondes transformations économiques, techniques et sociales, marquée par le passage d'une production essentiellement artisanale et agricole à une production mécanisée réalisée dans des usines. Elle commence en Grande-Bretagne dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIᵉ siècle, vers 1760, avant de se diffuser progressivement en Europe et dans d'autres régions du monde. II. Les causes de la révolution industrielle Plusieurs facteurs expliquent le début de cette révolution. 1. Les progrès techniques De nouvelles machines sont inventées pour produire plus rapidement et en plus grande quantité. Exemple : la machine à vapeur perfectionnée par James Watt à partir des années 1760-1770. 2. Les ressources naturelles La Grande-Bretagne possède d'importantes réserves de charbon et de fer. Le charbon fournit de l'énergie, tandis que le fer sert à fabriquer des machines et des outils. 3. Le développement du commerce et des capitaux Le commerce permet à certains entrepreneurs d'accumuler de l'argent qu'ils investissent dans la création d'usines et l'achat de machines. 4. La croissance démographique L'augmentation de la population favorise la disponibilité de la main-d'œuvre et crée une demande plus importante de produits. III. Les principales innovations techniques 1. La machine à vapeur Elle utilise la vapeur d'eau pour produire une force mécanique. Elle favorise le développement des usines, des mines et des transports. 2. Les machines textiles Elles permettent de filer et de tisser les tissus plus rapidement qu'à la main. 3. Le chemin de fer La locomotive à vapeur facilite le transport des marchandises et des voyageurs, tout en développant les échanges commerciaux. 4. Les progrès de la métallurgie La production de fer et d'acier se développe, ce qui permet de construire davantage de machines, de rails et d'équipements industriels. IV. Les conséquences de la révolution industrielle A. Les conséquences économiques Développement des usines et de la production en grande quantité. Augmentation de la production industrielle. Développement du commerce et des transports. Renforcement du capitalisme industriel, fondé sur l'investissement privé et la recherche du profit. B. Les conséquences sociales La société connaît de profonds changements. La bourgeoisie industrielle : elle possède des usines, investit des capitaux et dirige les entreprises. La classe ouvrière : elle travaille dans les usines contre un salaire. L'exode rural : de nombreuses personnes quittent les campagnes pour chercher du travail dans les villes. L'urbanisation : les villes se développent rapidement autour des activités industrielles. Les ouvriers connaissent souvent des conditions de travail difficiles : longues journées, faibles salaires, accidents et emploi des enfants dans certaines usines. C. Les conséquences environnementales Augmentation de la pollution liée à la combustion du charbon. Développement des villes industrielles. Exploitation plus importante des ressources naturelles. V. La diffusion de la révolution industrielle La révolution industrielle ne touche pas tous les pays au même moment. La Grande-Bretagne : berceau de la première révolution industrielle, dès la seconde moitié du XVIIIᵉ siècle. La France et la Belgique : elles s'industrialisent progressivement au XIXᵉ siècle. L'Allemagne et les États-Unis : leur industrialisation s'accélère surtout au XIXᵉ siècle. D'autres régions du monde : l'industrialisation s'étend ensuite de manière inégale, selon les pays et les périodes. On distingue généralement une première révolution industrielle fondée notamment sur le charbon, la vapeur et le textile, puis une deuxième révolution industrielle, à partir de la seconde moitié du XIXᵉ siècle, marquée entre autres par l'électricité, le pétrole, l'acier et la chimie. VI. Les dates et notions à retenir Vocabulaire essentiel Industrialisation : développement des activités industrielles dans un pays. Mécanisation : remplacement ou assistance du travail manuel par des machines. Capitalisme industriel : système économique dans lequel des entrepreneurs investissent des capitaux dans l'industrie pour réaliser des profits. Exode rural : départ des habitants des campagnes vers les villes. Urbanisation : augmentation de la population urbaine et extension des villes. Prolétariat : classe des travailleurs qui vivent principalement de la vente de leur force de travail.

Grade 11 History Review: Bourgeois Revolutions, Capitalism, and Socialism

Bourgeoisies marchandes, négoces internationaux et traites négrières au XVIIIe siècle

Histoire Chapitre 1 : Bourgeoisies , négoces internationaux , traites négrière et esclavage au XVIIIe siècle.( définitions et dates)

La Révolution française : La Terreur et la République bourgeoise

Fiche de révision - Bourgeoisies marchandes, négoces internationaux et traite

Bourgeois Revolutions in Western Europe and North America Review

Bourgeoisies marchandes, négoces intercontinentaux et traite négrière au XVIIIe siècle

Bourgeois Gentilhomme

Vocabulaire du "Bourgeois Gentilhomme"

Bourgeoisie, commerce colonial et traite négrière au XVIIIe siècle

Vocabulaire : Bourgeoisie marchande, grand commerce et traite négrière au XVIIIe siècle

Bourgeoisies et traite négrière au XVIIIe siècle

Bourgeoisie

Chapitre 1 2. Platon Greek philosopher who believed the best society is ruled by wise and educated leaders (“philosopher-kings”). 3. Polis An independent Greek city-state with its own government and laws. 4. Aristote Greek philosopher who believed government should work for the common good and serve its citizens. 6. Aristocratie A government ruled by a small group of noble or privileged people. 7. Oligarchie A government controlled by a small group of powerful or wealthy people. 11. Bureaucratie A system where government decisions are carried out by officials and administrators. 12. Pouvoir exécutif The branch of government that enforces laws and runs the country day-to-day. 13. Parlement An elected group of representatives that makes laws. 14. Gouvernement autoritaire A government where one leader or small group holds most of the power and limits freedoms. 15. Pouvoir législatif The branch of government responsible for creating laws. 17. Pouvoir judiciaire The branch of government that interprets laws and operates the courts. 20. Nationalisme Strong pride in and loyalty to one’s nation, culture, and people. 21. Hobbes Believed people are naturally selfish and need a strong government to maintain order and security. 22. Locke Believed all people have natural rights (life, liberty, and property) that governments must protect. 23. Rousseau Believed political power comes from the people and governments should follow the “general will” of society. 25. Constitutionnalisme The principle that government power is limited by a constitution and laws. 26. Adam Smith Father of capitalism; believed free markets and competition create wealth and prosperity. 30. Marx Believed capitalism creates inequality because the rich control production; supported a classless society. 31. La bourgeoisie In Marxism, the wealthy class that owns businesses and the means of production. 37. Monarchie héréditaire A monarchy where power passes from one family member to another through inheritance. 38. Magna Carta A document signed in 1215 that limited the king’s power and established that everyone must follow the law. 40. Rapatrié The return of people, cultural objects, or remains to their country or homeland. 41. Représentation proportionnelle An electoral system where parties receive seats in proportion to the percentage of votes they earn. ⸻ Chapitre 1 (suite) 43. Coup d’État The sudden and often illegal removal of a government from power. 45. Totalitarisme A system where the government controls nearly every aspect of society, politics, and daily life. 48. Référendum A direct vote by citizens to accept or reject a law or political proposal. 49. Organisation non gouvernementale (ONG) An independent organization that works on social, humanitarian, or international issues without being controlled by a government. ⸻ Chapitre 2 1. Idéologie politique A set of beliefs and values about how government and society should function. 2. Libéralisme An ideology that values individual rights, freedom, democracy, and equality before the law. 3. Conservatisme An ideology that values tradition, stability, and gradual change rather than rapid reform. 4. Échiquier politique A spectrum used to compare political beliefs, usually from left to right. 5. Centriste A person whose political views are moderate and fall between the left and right. 7. Libertarianisme The belief that people should have maximum personal freedom and government should have very limited power. 11. Égalitariste A person who believes everyone should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment. 12. Utilitarisme The idea that decisions should create the greatest happiness or benefit for the greatest number of people. 16. Syndicats Organizations that represent workers and protect their rights, wages, and working conditions. 17. Totalitarisme A political system where the state has complete control over society and citizens. 18. Anarchisme The belief that society can function without a government or centralized authority. 19. Communisme A system where property and resources are collectively owned and social classes no longer exist. 21. Socialisme An economic and political system where important industries are owned or controlled by society or the government to reduce inequality. 23. Syndicalisation The process of joining or creating a labour union. 24. Socialisme démocratique An ideology that supports democracy while using government policies to reduce economic inequality. 28. Adam Smith Believed economic freedom, competition, and free trade benefit society. 29. Capitalisme An economic system based on private ownership, profit, competition, and free markets. ⸻ Chapitre 2 (suite) 30. Mercantilisme The belief that a country becomes richer by controlling trade and exporting more than it imports. 31. Laisser-faire An economic idea that government should interfere as little as possible in the economy. 32. Fascisme An extreme authoritarian ideology that promotes nationalism, obedience to the state, and strong centralized power. 36. Libre-échange Trade between countries with few or no tariffs, taxes, or restrictions. 37. Privatisation The transfer of a government-owned business or service to private ownership. 41. Nationaliser To transfer a private company or industry into government ownership. 46. Féminisme A movement and ideology that seeks equal rights and opportunities for all genders. 47. Mouvement social A group of people working together to create social or political change. 51. Écologisme A movement and ideology focused on protecting the environment and promoting sustainability. 54. Justice sociale Chapitre 3 1. Désobéissance civile The peaceful and deliberate breaking of a law to protest something considered unjust. 2. Religion civile Shared beliefs, symbols, and values that unite a nation and create a sense of national identity. 3. Religion d’État A religion that is officially recognized and supported by a government. 4. Diaspora A group of people living outside their ancestral homeland while maintaining ties to their culture. 5. L’Holocauste The genocide of approximately six million Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II. 6. Djihad In Islam, a struggle or effort in the service of God; it can refer to a personal spiritual struggle or, in some cases, armed defense of the faith. 7. Théocratie A form of government where religious leaders rule and religious law guides the state. 8. Suffrage The right to vote in elections. 9. Siècle des Lumières An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights. 10. La séparation de l’Église et de l’État The principle that government and religious institutions should remain independent from one another. 11. Dogme A principle or belief accepted as unquestionably true by a religion or ideology. 12. Fondamentalisme A movement that seeks a strict return to the original principles of a religion. 13. Démographie The study of populations, including their size, growth, and characteristics. 14. Sionisme A political movement supporting the creation and preservation of a Jewish homeland in Israel. The idea that society should be fair and provide equal rights, opportunities, and access to resources.

Modern Civilizations — Semester 2 Exam Study Guide Exam Date: May 22 Format: Bubble Sheet Questions: 123 total • 50 Vocabulary/Matching • 50 Multiple Choice • 16 Map Skills • 7 Document-Based Questions ⸻ SECTION A — GEOGRAPHY SKILLS Key Vocabulary Cardinal Directions • North • South • East • West Shown on a compass rose. Intermediate Directions • Northeast • Northwest • Southeast • Southwest Latitude Imaginary lines that run east-west and measure distance north or south of the Equator. Longitude Imaginary lines that run north-south and measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Projection A flat map representation of Earth. Scale Shows distance on a map. Distortion When map shapes, sizes, or distances are changed because Earth is round. ⸻ 5 Themes of Geography 1. Location Where a place is. 2. Place What a place is like. 3. Movement How people, goods, and ideas move. 4. Region An area with common features. 5. Human-Environment Interaction How people affect and adapt to the environment. ⸻ Continents & Oceans 7 Continents • North America • South America • Europe • Asia • Africa • Australia • Antarctica 5 Oceans • Pacific • Atlantic • Indian • Arctic • Southern ⸻ CHAPTER 23 — SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & AGE OF EXPLORATION Section 1 — Scientific Revolution Key Vocabulary Geocentric Theory Earth is the center of the universe. Heliocentric Theory The sun is the center of the solar system. Elliptical Oval-shaped planetary orbits. Scientific Method Organized process of observation, testing, and experimentation. Scientific Rationalism Using reason and logic to understand the world. ⸻ Important People Galileo Galilei Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory. Isaac Newton Developed laws of motion and gravity. Nicolaus Copernicus Proposed heliocentric theory. René Descartes Believed truth comes through reason. Robert Hooke Studied cells using microscopes. Sir Francis Bacon Promoted experimentation and observation. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Educational ideas Muslim scholars adopted from India • Mathematics • Astronomy • Number system (including zero) How were cells discovered? Scientists used microscopes to observe tiny living structures. Who led the study of cells? Robert Hooke ⸻ Section 2 — The Age of Exploration Key Vocabulary Caravel Fast, maneuverable sailing ship used by explorers. Colony Land controlled by another country. Exploit To use resources for benefit or profit. Quinine Medicine used against malaria. Rivalry Competition between nations. Smallpox Deadly disease spread to Native Americans. ⸻ Important People & Places Christopher Columbus Sailed for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492. Columbian Exchange Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas. Dutch East India Company Controlled trade in Asia. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Sponsored Columbus’s voyage. Prince Henry the Navigator Encouraged Portuguese exploration. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who was Prince Henry the Navigator? A Portuguese prince who funded exploration schools, maps, and voyages. Why was the Caravel important? • Faster ship • Easier to steer • Could sail against the wind • Allowed longer ocean voyages ⸻ Section 3 — European Empires Key Vocabulary Conquistador Spanish conqueror in the Americas. Plantation Large farm using forced labor. Racism Belief that one race is superior. Triangular Trade Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Middle Passage Brutal voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas. ⸻ Important People & Places Atahualpa Last Inca emperor defeated by Spain. Francisco Pizarro Conquered the Inca Empire. Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire. Pedro Álvares Cabral Claimed Brazil for Portugal. Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Describe the invasion of Mexico • Hernán Cortés led Spanish conquistadors. • The Aztecs were led by Montezuma. • Spanish had guns, horses, steel weapons, and Native allies. • Smallpox weakened the Aztecs. Conditions of the Middle Passage • Crowded ships • Disease • Starvation • Abuse and death Achievements of Portugal • Explored African coast • Opened sea routes to Asia • Built trading empire ⸻ CHAPTER 24 — ENLIGHTENMENT & REVOLUTIONS Section 1 — The Age of Reason Key Vocabulary Absolute Monarch King or queen with total power. Divine Right Belief that rulers receive power from God. Natural Rights Basic rights all people are born with. Enlightened Despot Ruler who accepted Enlightenment ideas. Laissez-faire Government should not interfere in economy. Free Enterprise Businesses operate with little government control. Philosophe French Enlightenment thinker. ⸻ Important People John Locke Believed people have natural rights. Montesquieu Supported separation of powers. Voltaire Supported freedom of speech and religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Believed government should follow the will of the people. Mary Wollstonecraft Supported women’s rights and education. Adam Smith Wrote about free-market economics. Louis XIV Example of an absolute monarch. Catherine the Great Enlightened despot of Russia. Frederick the Great Enlightened ruler. Joseph II Made reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What group applied science ideas to government? The philosophes. Why did philosophes think justice systems were unfair? Punishments were cruel and laws treated social classes unequally. ⸻ Section 2 — Revolutions on Three Continents Key Vocabulary Bourgeoisie Middle class. Jacobins Radical French Revolution group. Declaration of Independence American colonies’ statement of freedom from Britain. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen French document declaring equality and rights. ⸻ Important People Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence. Louis XVI French king executed during the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte Rose to power after the French Revolution. Simón Bolívar Helped liberate Venezuela and other nations. José de San Martín Helped free South American countries from Spain. Toussaint Louverture Led Haitian independence movement. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who fought for Venezuela’s independence? Simón Bolívar Why were the Articles of Confederation replaced? The national government was too weak. ⸻ CHAPTER 25 — INDUSTRIALIZATION, NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Section 1 — Industrial Revolution Key Vocabulary Industrialize Develop factories and machines. Urbanization Growth of cities. Labor Union Workers organized for better conditions. Push-Pull Factor Reasons people leave or move to places. Socialism Government control of economy to help society. Communism Classless society where property is shared. Woman Suffrage Women’s right to vote. ⸻ Important People Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin. Karl Marx Created communist ideas. Ellis Island Main immigration station in the U.S. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Three ways Industrial Revolution changed society • More factories • Urbanization • Faster transportation • More goods produced • Growth of middle class Push factors affecting immigration • Poverty • Famine • War • Lack of jobs ⸻ Section 2 — Nationalism Around the World Key Vocabulary Nationalism Strong pride and loyalty to one’s nation. Nation-State Country with one national identity. Militarism Building up armed forces. Republic Government where citizens elect leaders. Dictator Leader with total control. ⸻ Important People Otto von Bismarck Unified Germany under Prussian leadership. Giuseppe Garibaldi Helped unify Italy. Meiji Emperor Led modernization of Japan. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Problems after Latin American independence • Political instability • Weak economies • Dictatorships • Social inequality Who unified Germany? Otto von Bismarck How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan? • Modern industry • Modern military • Western education and technology ⸻ Section 3 — The New Imperialism Key Vocabulary Imperialism Strong nations taking control of weaker regions. Direct Rule Foreign country controls government directly. Missionary Person spreading religion. Sepoy Indian soldier serving Britain. Raj British rule in India. ⸻ Important Places & Events Berlin Conference European nations divided Africa. East India Company Controlled trade and territory in India. French Indochina French-controlled region in Asia. ⸻ CHAPTER 26 — WORLD AT WAR Section 1 — World at War Key Vocabulary Alliance Agreement between countries for support. Stalemate No side can win. Trench Warfare Fighting from dug trenches. U-boat German submarine. Bolsheviks Russian revolutionary communist group. Treaty of Versailles Treaty ending WWI. Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente Britain, France, Russia. League of Nations International peace organization after WWI. ⸻ Important People Vladimir Lenin Leader of Bolsheviks. Karl Marx Inspired communist beliefs. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What triggered WWI? Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediate effect of WWI on Russia Economic hardship and revolution. Why was WWI a total war? Entire economies and civilians supported the war effort. How did Bolsheviks change Russia’s war policy? Russia withdrew from WWI. Trench warfare resulted from what technology? Machine guns and modern artillery. ⸻ Section 2 — Between the Wars Key Vocabulary Fascism Dictatorship emphasizing nationalism and obedience. Propaganda Biased information used to influence people. Reparations Payments for war damages. Totalitarian Government with total control. Inflation Rising prices and weaker money value. ⸻ Important People Adolf Hitler Leader of Nazi Germany. Benito Mussolini Leader of Fascist Italy. Franklin D. Roosevelt Led U.S. during Great Depression and WWII. Joseph Stalin Communist dictator of USSR. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Conditions caused by Great Depression • Unemployment • Poverty • Bank failures • Economic collapse What kind of dictatorships did Hitler and Mussolini create? Fascist dictatorships. ⸻ Section 3 — World War II Key Vocabulary Appeasement Giving in to avoid conflict. Blitzkrieg “Lightning war” using fast attacks. Genocide Deliberate killing of a people group. Holocaust Murder of six million Jews during WWII. Ration Limit supplies during wartime. Atomic Bomb Extremely powerful nuclear weapon. ⸻ Important Places & People Pearl Harbor Japanese attack brought U.S. into WWII. Hiroshima First atomic bomb dropped. Nagasaki Second atomic bomb dropped. Winston Churchill Led Britain during WWII. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Which event broke German defenses in the west? D-Day invasion (Normandy invasion)

bourgeois

Events/Ideas that Changed the World Notes Day 1 What is a dictatorship? Origins: Dictatura, ancient Roman term, wasn’t originally negative, it was just a title, Caesar went by it. What it meant was that the republican senate in rome determined there was a threat to the social order, they would elect a dictator. We need to give someone total power for six months to protect the country from whatever threat. They would choose two guys, and then choose a dictator from them. That dictator would establish order, then step down. The dictator was given extralegal powers, they couldn’t change laws, but they didn’t have to, because they could do whatever they wanted for six months. It did work for awhile, but what happens if someone decides not to leave? Caesar was elected dictator, but never left, until he was murdered. After that, they started to rethink the whole system. Tyrant and Despot also used to be neutral terms. They were just court titles. It was a term for someone that had power in a local area, but gained that power in an unusual way, usually through buying it. Later, they become synonymous with illegitimate rule. Day 2 Notes Dictatorship wasn’t originally considered a negative term. You were called a Despot, which was also a neutral term. Hobbes was a believer in dictatorship, using the countries around them as evidence that they needed a monarch; they couldn’t do whatever they wanted, although they basically could, because removing them was near impossible. The logic with electing a dictator temporarily was that they assumed the public would turn against them once it was time to leave, and they would fold under public pressure. Once Caesar came in, he pretended the emergency was still going on, and he swayed the public vote in favour of him. In the 18th/19th century, tyranny and despotism started to be synonymous with power being exercised illegitimately. French Revolution, revolutionary dictatorship to achieve the social equality you need. We will force you to be free. Napoleon makes himself dictator of France, temporarily, and then makes himself emperor of France. Switch definition of what public support means, such as making nonaggress the enemy. Karl Marx wanted to overthrow the capitalist system by overthrowing the dictatorship. Vladimir Lenin took power of Russia in 1917 through a violent revolution against a long standing monarchy. They openly refer to themselves as dictators at first, saying that they need to eliminate enemies, or it will allow the enemies to come back. Post WW1: positive use of dictatorship declines, even in the Soviet Union. Mussolini seized power in 1922, establishing a Fascist state. Dictatorship starts to become a negative term. Mussolini used the term Totalitarianism, he adopted the term as positive. He wanted to neutralize the masses to preserve power and social order. Day 3 Notes Cult of Personality Non necessary element of dictatorships. Legitimize the leader. Legitimize an ideology by identifying it with said leader. Establish the leader as both above normal human concerns and as the fatherly protector of the people. Manipulation of mass media. They establish the leader as above normal human concerns, but also the fatherly protector of the people. Triumph of the Will, 1935 documentary, an account of the Nazi party. It’s an example of propaganda from the nazi party. Day 4 Notes Italy was divided into various city states, kingdoms, and other empires, for centuries. Italy was mostly unified as one country by 1861. The pope was basically the head of the country at this point. They especially welded power over Rome. The vast majority of Italians then and now are Catholics. They didn’t believe the people were ready to govern themselves, or vote, they believed in a monarchy, just not a dictatorship. The Ethiopian Army destroyed the Italians in their war, which destroyed the narrative that the black people needed help to be governed, given that they destroyed the Italians. A narrative develops that the liberals were at fault for Italy losing, creating a desire for a new leader. Enter Mussolini, he was a militant socialist advocating violence (propaganda of the deed). Was arrested many times, he was influenced by Nietzsche, Filppo Marinetti. He believed violence was useful and necessary, that it purified people. Ironically, he referred to the military a lot, yet was arrested for avoiding being drafted. He said he would only fight for the working class, not the country. WW1 breaks out, he did serve there. He started a newspaper during this time, and Italy entered the war in 1915, turning on allies Germany, and joining France, Britain, and Russia. Originally, he didn’t support Italy entering the war, but eventually decided he agreed with it. He was a socialist, and socialists didn’t support capitalist centered wars, Mussolini disagreed and expected that they would finally get all the territory Italy deserves back. He’s kicked out of the socialist party for these beliefs. In his newspaper, he starts promoting pro-intervention views. He denounces socialism entirely, and says he was kicked out for promoting violence. Day 5 Notes Fascism in a couple words is fighting in action, that’s what it’s about. It’s difficult to turn into a government. The Fascists originally didn't get as many votes as the National Fascist Party in Italy. Speech in October, march on Rome, if Fascists were not given power, they would take it by force. Day 6 Notes Mussolini's goal was to reestablish the Roman Empire, and wants to go back to a Roman Empire. It’s about obliterating earlier society, replacing corrupt liberal democracy. Mussolini's party murdered a political opponent, named Giacomo Matteotti, who was a socialist and a vocal opposition. He went missing in June, found dead in August. Vatican City, which is the smallest country in the world, smaller than the university. Italy and Mussolini recognized the Pope as a sovereign of an independent nation, which is now Vatican City, it will now be a separate country from Italy, the Pope will control it. Italy will live there, if the Pope agrees to stay out of Italian politics, and be neutral on international affairs unless asked, and all bishops in Italy have to pledge loyalty to the Fascist movement. Italy also paid this new country a big sum of money, they also agreed to teach Catholicism in schools, along with Fascists. This was viewed at the time as a win for Mussolini. Most Catholics saw it as a decent win for the church as well. Mussolini gained popularity as a result. Mussolini is even painted alongside Jesus in some churches in Italy. The Pacificiation of Libya, has since been labelled a genocide. It was meant to crush local resistance to Italian ruling. They used mustard gas on civilians and rebels. Innocent LIbyan citizens died during this. They eventually arrested the resistance leader. By the end of it, the Italians labelled Libya as pacified. Italy still deals with this in today's politics, with the fallout of committing this act to Libya. It seems like there might have been a racial motivation for it. The racial motivation was viewed as Mussolini simply seeing Italians as better than everyone else, Libyans were inferior to Italians, and in their deserved territory. One of the major problems with dictatorships is that you can never get the truth, nobody is going to tell you if there is a problem, out of fear for their lives. He didn’t know how popular Fascism was, and there wasn’t a reliable way to find out. He tries to do things to earn the popular vote, like war, like conquering things. Ethiopia was very symbolic, they had lost to Ethiopia in a previous war, that embarrassed them. So, he decides to get some getback. Mussolini has to be careful, their army can’t take Britain or France, so he has to take Ethiopia without provoking the Europeans, so he bluffs. He lies and says that his troops were attacked by Ethiopian troops, unprovoked. He threatened force to measure the reactions of the other count Day 7 Notes Mussolini was concerned about the lack of enthusiasm about fascism in Italy, He even created an encyclopedia of Fascism. Now that Mussolini has indicated they have relatively similar views with Germany, they form an alliance, there is economic dependence on each other, this is not a popular move, as Italians don’t like Germany. In 1939, they signed the Pact of Steel, this is a military agreement, they agree to attack anyone that attacks them. They continued to invade other countries, for no real reason, it was cheered, but now we were seeing the natural end of Fascism. How can you stick with an ideology that is centered around violence, if you’ve won, what do you do then? Mussolini introduced racially motivated laws called the Defense of the Race in 1938, which was very similar to the laws introduced by the Nazis. It frustrated Italians that he was just doing what Hitler was doing, it’s possible he was trying to center out specific people to explain why things aren’t perfect yet, to distract from his incompetent leadership. In 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. Mussolini didn't join the war early on. Poland is getting destroyed by Germany, but on the Western front, it’s quiet for a while. Mussolini changes that, by swooping in to take advantage of Hitlers chaos, who quickly destroys most of Western Europe. Hitler now owns France, Mussolini thinks things look good for Hitler. So, he declares war. His justification was that the Italians were trapped, they needed living space. Sounds very similar to Hitler there. It works, at first. Mussolini tries to expand his African empire. The Italian army was not ready for this, even his war commanders who supported him told him they would lose the war. Mussolini ignored them, insisting Fascism would always win. They start to lose the war, they don’t have the military capable of doing this. It embarrassed Mussolini greatly. His only idea is to continue to expand, but that doesn’t work either. By 1943, the Italians collapsed, and Germany had to come save them. The problem is that Germany is now fighting wars on several fronts, and that proves too much. Hitler is now really angry with Mussolini that he had to come save him. The Allies were counting on Southern Italy not being as supportive of Mussolini, so they invaded there, and the Southern Italians didn’t fight the Allies, simply because they didn’t like Mussolini. That year, Mussolini was voted out by his own Fascist Grand Council as leader. They voted him out on the basis that he was no longer promoting true Fascism, most of the council were his relatives, they still voted him out. Mainland Italy is invaded, and they surrender. This leads to a civil war. Germany is still fighting the Allies in Italy, plus Northern Italy still believes in Fascism, while Southern Italy no longer does. Hitler, while angry with Mussolini, still believes he could be useful, so he decides to liberate him from a castletop prison. THey break in with a helicopter and hand gliders, they kill all the guards, and they get Mussolini. Hitler installed Mussolini as a puppet leader of the Italian Social Republic. Hitler sees him as a useful figurehead so they can claim that Italy is still independent. The Italian Social Republic is not a well run country, and is nothing but revenge plots, Mussolini gets his son in law who voted him out, and executes him in front of his daughter. That’s what Mussolini does for the last years of his life, is take revenge. Day 8 Notes Mussolini was captured in 1945, he and numerous other Fascists were executed right after being captured. Adolf Hitler The Habsburg family led Germany for many years, they controlled various German states. Around when Hitler was born, some of the other German states were controlled by other people, eventually they were unified, the differences were religious in nature. Germany is eventually unified, Austria is left out of the proceedings. In 1867, the conflict was settled, the Hungarians took over the nation, although the other nation states were not happy about this. Hitler was born into a dysfunctional family, his parents died at a young age. Hitler had two siblings, but five siblings died as infants. He was born sick, but he survived. His mother did not work. Even Hitlers name is confusing, his father was born out of wedlock, and the gossip is that Hitler might've actually been jewish. We don’t know who his grandfather was. His step siblings ditched the abuse after their parents died, so he has to raise his sister. He did not get into the Academy of Graphic Arts. He then just works odd jobs in Vienna, sells some paintings, he’s living off the little bit that his father left him, he is often homeless. Vienna is home to many different ideologies. He’s attracted to Pan Germanism, Volkisch nationalism, and antisemitism. Pan Germanism is that the Germans needed all the German states to give them living space so that they could thrive. He sees the Hasbergs as a problem. He hated Catholicism. He blamed them for Austria being left out, and he begins to identify with Germany a lot more than Austria, despite not yet being a German citizen. Day 9 Notes Hitler existed in the military in 1914, he initially refused to serve, but eventually changed his mind. He was blinded by gas in 1918. As he was recovering from this, Germany surrendered. He did have to get special permission, as he was not a citizen. Losing this war, much like with Italy, was a shock to German nationalism. He never drank, and stopped eating meat. He fights a lot, and wins awards for bravery. He really starts to internalize social Darwinism. They believed that the European countries that were winning wars was because nature had determined they were the strongest. The destiny of Germany was to win, but they didn't, they lost. The media was telling the citizens that they had been winning, so it was a shock that they lost. The king, a monarch, abdicates, so monarchy is now gone too. A myth that Germany was stabbed in the back by internal traitors starts, communists, jews, socialists, that’s why Germany lost the war. Hitler becomes a regular in what’s known as beer hall politics. Nobody knows what to do with a lot of the vets that survived the war. So, one thing they do is hire them as military intelligence, as with Hitler. They decide they need to stop political violence. Hitler gets hired to spy on a party, called the German Worker’s Party, but it’s actually a far right party, they call themselves that so they can appeal to the working class. Their goal is to get rid of the Jews so that they can fix capitalism. Hitler joins it, to spy on it. While doing it though, he looks around, and likes some of their ideas, but it’s not extreme enough, they need more. So, Hitler starts speaking on the events, and stops spying on them. Within a couple of years, he is the leader of the group, and they rebrand themselves as the Nazi party. The Nazis are far more willing to commit violence, and are more far right than other groups of that time. He believes it’s about saving not just Germany, but the world. Ernst Rohm led the Storm Troopers. His job was to beat up political rivals, and Hitler eventually got his eye. This political violence works, it scares people into voting for the Nazis. Hitler is also able to say that he is separated from the violence because someone else runs the violent part of things. Hitler is able to stop the violence, he is able to stop Rohm. Day 10 Notes The people in charge of Hitlers trial were Nazi sympathizers, and gave Hitler and Nazis light sentences, while also allowing him to speak at his trial, which gave him ample time to gain fame, it made national news. Hitler is convicted anyway, for five years, but only serves nine months, in a min security prison, and is allowed visitors, where he converts most of the prison to his worldview, and also writes Mein Kempf. Hitler now learns that he can’t use force to win the government, he needs to win them over. Paul von Hindenburg uses the emergency act to be a dictator temporarily after the depression, but uses it several times. He does not believe in democracy. His plan is to stop the left from forming a party and organizing. There are about five elections in 1931, because the left keeps getting elected, but the emergency act is being used to overrule it, though it annoys the German population. However, it was being used as an example of the fact that democracy doesn’t work. The Nazis continued to grow, there were several elections in 1932, where the Nazis got 37 % of the popular vote, the largest single party. This is one of the worst points of depression. After less than a year, Hitler became dictator. Franz von Papen convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitle chancellor in 1933. Their popularity starts to decline, the only way to get around that is for Hindenburg to hire Hitler, they count on him being a peasant that will be too stupid to do much. Papen will be co chancellor, to watch things, we’ll be able to control him. A fire happened in 1933, historians still don’t know who started it, but it was blamed on a communist conspiracy at the time. The Nazis use this to get more power, they pass the Enabling Act, which gives Hitler a dictatorship. A couple of months later, all non Nazi political parties were removed. In 1934, Hindenburg died, he didn't replace him, he just merged his position with his own, so he gained more power. A significant amount of violence and intimidation happens in his early years. The Night of the Long Knives happens during this time, that is when Hitler killed rivals of the Nazi party, sending out goons later known as the SS, and brutally hundreds of people he believes are challenging him for power. He killed Rohm for being gay, though he had known this since he had met him. In 1939, they opened their first concentration camp. From the first party, it’s usually enemies of the Nazis, communists, the left, starts to include more Jews as it goes. This is justified by saying these people are threats to the government. Day 11 Notes You had to get a racial card, if you had more than 3 jewish relatives, you would not be considered a german citizen. If it was less than that, you would temporarily be a German citizen. This would get restricted even more as time goes on. These regulations consider who you can marry, who can drive cars, everything is regulated. Property is taken away from Jews. If you were gay, or religious, you would be regulated. They also sterilized thousands of people as well. THey gas brought 500 000 people in three years. Hundreds of jews were shot in public merely for being Jews, then the Germans blamed them for property damage, justification for restricting the jews even more. He took Germany out of the League of Nations. That’s what Nazis do, they create conditions that then they can point to and say see, you need us, we need war, it’s being forced upon us. Hitler invades Czechia, but claims he only wants the part that has mostly german speaking people, people on the Allies side don’t believe him, others say that they don’t want to fight a war. So they hammer out an agreement to give him this land, guess who they get to negotiate? Mussolini. Hitler then immediately betrays everybody, takes the land he was given, but then also invades the rest of Czechia. So Hitler is told, if he does anything else, they will go to war. Hitler then invades Poland, Britain and France soon declare war, and WW2 begins. The West is pretty quiet at this time, a different story in the East. We’re at war, even with the total destruction of Poland, the Allies do nothing, they seem to be holding out hope that maybe things can be resolved. The Germans through the 40s took Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands, France, Belgium. France was one of the strongest empires in the world at the time, and they fell in six weeks, now the Nazis have a monopoly. The Allies are losing by a lot at this point. Nobody seems to be able to stand up to Germany, Hitler is the most powerful man in the world. Some of this was revenge for WW1. Hitler has more power than anybody on earth pretty much, and portrays himself as a Messiah, but he’s not actually very good at this, it’s mostly the military taking advantage. Hitler starts to believe his own hype, and believes that he’s infallible. He starts to execute military leaders that contradict him, creating a bunch of yes-men. Hitler even allowed the Allies to escape at one point when they had him on the run because of a decision made by Hitler. This is causing the empire to crack. Hitler decided in 1941 to invade the Soviet Union. His racial version of the world centers around this, and he’s convinced that they have enough to stop the Russians. They bet it all on one giant hit on the SU, really fast, it’ll take them all out, and then they will own Russia. This was briefly successful at first, but then it’s not. The top reason is that Russia is really big, and it’s cold, the Soviets don’t just collapse, 27 million Soviets die in this war. However, they don’t fold, they retreat, burn everything so the Nazis can’t get supplies, but unlike Hitler, Stalin goes the other direction, he listens to military leaders. Htiler is doubling down on making his own decisions. To the point all the decisions are made by Hitler, which leads to inaction in several areas, they stretch out the Germans supplies and people, and then winter hits. The Germans weren’t prepared for the cold, and they slowed down significantly. The Soviets then join the Allies. So the Soviets get supplies from the Allies, and it helps them as the Germans are now isolated in Russia. America then entered the war in 1941. Japan attacks the States, and so the States have to enter the war, they are a powerhouse. They help the Allies, but the States also give supplies to the Russians against the Nazis. All of a sudden, the advantage in the war has moved to the allies. Day 12 Notes In just two days in 1941, the Nazis shot 33 thousand Jews, in another two day span, 28 thousand, in a couple weeks, 70 thousand. However, the Nazis realize that they are using too much resources, and it comes to light that some of the soldiers are showing signs of guilt, and that needs to be minimized, so they need to come up with a better way. Hitler had permission to come up with a plan, so they went back to what they had been doing to disabled: gas them. They determine they will build extermination camps, the whole point being to kill as many people as possible. They did this by putting gas in showers. It’s estimated roughly 1.1 million people that were deported into Germany were killed. The Germans couldn’t function, they were terribly disorganized. D Day, the Allies decided to attack the Nazis where they were at their strongest. They believed that they had reallocated so many resources to the Eastern front, that the area was weak enough in the West that the Allies could break through, while it was difficult, they were correct. Hitler refused to believe that the Allies could break through the West, so even though he was warned, he ignored the warnings. From this point, everyone knows the Nazis will lose eventually. In 1944, there was an assanation attempt on Hitler. A group of military elites and citizens were banded together to try and kill Hitler, a pretty diverse group of people that had different motivations for why they wanted Hitler dead. Some for moral reasons, for most of them, were afraid of what Hitler was going to do to the country, thinking he was a madman. If they got rid of them, they could surrender and get peace. Some had been active members in getting rid of Jews, they agreed with his mindset, but believe he specifically is a madman. Their plan involves a meeting that is approaching for military leaders, one of them was going to bring two bombs, and place them next to Hitler, who would blow up. They would then claim someone inside of the Nazi government had killed him, they would arrest everybody, and establish a new government. One of the bombs doesn’t work, he can only arm one. He places it next to Hitler, someone by chance moves it a little bit, and when it explodes, it explodes a table. Anyone involved, and their families, are executed. Several thousand are killed in the next few days, as he believes the hype that he’s a god even more. Hitler then orders the Battle of the Bulge, against advice, and it fails. He believed he could hit the Allies once, and they would get defeated, which of course doesn’t happen. The Western front has collapsed. The Red Army has pushed the Nazis back to Poland. They keep getting to the areas quicker and quicker, for the first time, the Russians find the concentration camps, and share the information with the world, they didn’t know this. Some believe the Russians even made it up. Hitler keeps demanding more deaths, starves thousands in the Netherlands, orders half a million deaths in Hungary, and he starts realizing that the walls are closing in on him. He’s about to lose. The Allies had debated whether they should invade Berlin, in 45, they decided that they needed to kill him, otherwise the war would never end, so they decided to go all out on Berlin, which they did. They destroy Berlin. Hitler lived the rest of his days in an underground bunker, Hitler had said that if he died, he would take the Germans with him. So, Hitler stayed in Berlin. Day 13 Notes Germany is slowly encircled, Hitler is all powerful, but he has no counter strategy. Berlin is under attack, and Hitler refuses all concessions. he then commits suicide, with a will and a last dictate left behind him. Germany surrenders a week after he dies. He appointed a heir to his dictatorship, and Hitler also married his girlfriend a few hours before they both commited suicide. The war still is going on, because Japan does not surrender. Hitler did try to make a deal to get away from the Allies, they of course refused. Joseph Stalin Under the Tsarist government, the Russian Empire was one of the major powers of Europe for centuries. The majority of the country were serfs. The dictator of the nation was called a Tsar, this idea was taken from what Caesar was called. Serfs were not technically considered slaves, though they had a similar role to one. They had no personhood, and were legally considered property. They were technically considered people, they had some rights, but very few. They were peasants, tied to the land forever. They owed their allegiance to the local princes, usually a rich family in the area that reported to the tsar. Almost none of the population went to high school, especially peasants. Stalin was a peasant, but he did go to hs for about a year. Most of the population was completely illiterate. Things started to change in the 19th century, new ideas started to come into Europe, and Alexander the second freed the serfs, technically, with a lot of qualifications. Stalin was raised poor, but in the school he was able to attend, he thrived. He rather suddenly converted to socialism in 1896. He became a professional revolutionary, one that got arrested frequently. Once he converts to socialism, he is kicked out of the seminary he was a part of, and eventually joins a Socialist Party. Day 14 Notes Stalin was arrested for trying to organize a strike in a factory in Georgia. Marxism is a pretty complicated set of ideas. Marxists believe history has a beginning, middle, and end, these stages are defined by the economic stages of the time. Marxists believe these are the laws of history, these ideas are widely criticized, especially for the idea history is predictable, it’s scientific. History will evolve until we reach the final class conflict, the ones that own the means of production, and then everyone else. Marxist believe work is essential to who we are as people, class consciousness is when people are tricked into believing that they have to work and not knowing that work should define who they are. Religion dulls the senses and makes you easier to control. The Su was a little bit different from the Nazis in that they claimed that they accidentally persecuted the Jews, not for their race specifically. Whereas the Jews were specifically targeted and that was made obvious by the Nazis. First, a Social Democratic Workers Party was started, in 1898. Russia needed to develop to be ready for revolution. Then, three years later, the Socialist Revolutionary Party was started, they needed land reform. It was labelled at the time as a party split, as the Social Democratic party was split on how to handle the situation. Russia lost the Russo-Japan war just four years later, Russia lost. This is a disaster, for obvious reasons, but it was also an embarrassment. There’s also racism involved, how could Russia lose to a non-European country? It signaled to many that Russia was collapsing. Workers started going on strike, over 100,000 workers, a couple of years later, which grinds the country's production to a halt. Then a bread march led to a czar's house, demanding food, the Russian soldiers came out, killing hundreds and wounding thousands. The czar started to break, allowing a very restricted vote, which temporarily kept people at bay. However, he reverted those policies a couple of years later. The socialist parties, all of them, pulled out of working with the czar entirely. This emboldened radicals, including Stalin. In 1912, Stalin was part of the two parties officially splitting. He was arrested for sedition in 1913, and this time, the authorities sentenced him to exile in the Arctic, this is his first real punishment. He’s stuck there when WW1 breaks out a year later. His party publicly advocates for Russia to lose the war, because that party believes it’s the inevitable result of capitalism, so if you destroy them, it would lead to communism being enforced. So, the party sabotages their own country. Russia, for more than one reason, handles the war really poorly. The Tsar says that they are getting involved to protect the Slavs peoples, which was a race. They lost the Battle of Tannenberg to the Germans badly. In 1917, the Tsar was overthrown, the family had run Russia for three centuries, but Russia is getting dominated by Germany. In his place, a provisional government takes over, there is no vote. So, a coalition of the two parties and several others are all formed to form a government in Russia. At the same time, in the major cities, groups called Soviets, or a Workers Council, are rising, and organizing the cities. They become strong locations of authority that counters the provisional government. Day 15 Notes The new party promised peace immediately, and delivered, this made them popular. They promised war would end. They threw the only real election in Russian history at this time. They lost the election really badly. They believe the election was tainted somehow. After this party signs a peace treaty with Germany, it pulls them out of the war, but they seize a significant amount of land. Giving up the land was not popular. Russia then breaks into a civil war, with three sides, the communist, the red side, very well organized. The whites, they are a loose grouping of anti communists. The greens were really effective, they were the socialist revolutionaries, the reds are afraid of the greens, they are powerful, but the whites kill them because they don’t like communists, then the reads finished them off. Russia becomes a Communist state, with Stalin being a background member of the party. They hold farce elections at this point, where there are several communist from the same party to choose from, but you pick the same party no matter what. Stalin was named General Secretary by Lenin in 1922. He parlays this position to gain further power. The leadership of the party notices that Stalin is growing more power. Vlad Lenin releases a document on his death called the Testament where he warns his party of the threat Stalin presents. He asked the party to think of a way to get rid of Stalin. His testament is debated, but Stalin stays in power. Against the wishes of Lenin and his widow, they embalm his body to hold it for display to the party. Stalin survives the vote, and decides he can outmanuever everybody. He does this by continuing a cycle of forming alliances, breaking them with another alliance, breaking that one, and so on. Stalin is part of a trio that is leading the Socialist party. They align themselves against Trotsky's ideas of permanent revolution to save the world. He was outed by the trio. The trio's idea is to let the Western powers weaken themselves, it’s inevitable with a capitalist system, in the meantime, make sure socialism is strong here in Russia first. By outing Trotsky, Stalin gains even more power and influence. Stalin then betrays his two partners of the trio right after. Stalin changes his mind on whether some members of his party, including his partners, aren’t really spies, or not dedicated enough, to what is now known as Marxism-Lenism. He fosters distrust in those members of the party. Despite it being counterintuitive, Stalin makes friends with the capitalists of the party, and uses that alliance to vote out the two members of the trio, even having them killed and/or expelled from the country. He’s now the only one left from the last era, and the undisputed leader. Day 16 Notes Stalin plans now to abolish private property. Everything is owned by the state. This is being done to provide food to other cities, and the SU starts building industrial cities. Stalin is building, or rearming Russia. They had gone through a lot, and he was getting fresh war material. They are planning on going to war with the capitalist countries eventually. They call it the five year plan. Stalin blames most of the problems on peasants who had been successful during this dark time for Russia. A key part of this period was to remove the peasants as a problem, by murdering them all. So, there are mass killings of anybody that identifies with that system. Stalin, by 1929, was a full dictator, he got rid of all challengers. It’s widely debated on whether this actually worked, within a decade, they had collectivised almost everything. Production, however, went down. This caused a massive famine that spread across the whole US, leading to millions of deaths. It’s debated over whether Stalin targeted specific people groups with the famine. Stalin's wife kills herself because of her husband being responsible for this. Stalin blames the failures of the system on the industrial production people in charge, killing them. Stalin also imprisoned millions of people in labour camps. One of the consequences of purging the people is that Stalin can make the people more dependent on him, so he appoints puppet leaders. They introduced a new Constitution in 1936, however, it made little change. All of the culture was still very traditional, criminalizing abortion, limiting divorce rights. This was called the Depression. Stalin knew SU was not ready for a WW in the 30’s. He attempted to ally with the Western powers, but that didn’t work, he tried again with Germany, but that also didn’t work. Enter the Spanish Civil War. Stalin thinks that if he waits for the capitalist countries to go to war, he can wait and then come in and wipe them all out. The Nazis offered the SU good terms for an alliance. However, they didn’ count on the Nazis trying to promote racial conquest. SU fought Finland in the Winter War in 1939, the SU didn't start off very well, despite outnumbering the Fins. The Fins start off well because they have a good strategy. Stalin actually took Finland to defend against Germany, even though they were allies. Eventually, SU overwhelmed Finland. Day 17 Notes Nazis invaded the USSR in 1941. Early disaster for the SU, German forces are halted outside of Moscow. Stalin goes into hiding, for weeks on end after the Nazis invade. Both sides wipe out whole populations, with nobody being safe. Stalin rallies, as he creates more positions for himself to fill. The difference between Stalin and Hitler was charisma, with the exception being a famous speech in 1941 to motivate his soldiers. Women fight in the Soviet Union, unique for those times. The Germans make it all the way to Moscow, then are stopped. In the West of the Soviet Union, it’s a blood bath, and the Final Solution begins. Everybody is wiped out. When territory would be invaded, you would have to decide whether you would ally with the Nazis or with the Soviet Union. The SU refuses to retreat from Moscow, and it works. stalin from this point starts to delegate and not just do all of it himself. He allows the military experts to do what they do. Gregory Zhukov leads the military effort against the Nazis and turns the tables. They also get a significant amount of money, before America gets in the war, they don’t want to get involved in the war. The Soviets, unlike the Allies, are willing to sacrifice their people to win. Stalin starts to relent on things like religion, as well as delegating. However, Stalin, due to believed disloyality, orders his daughter in law arrested and murdered, killed his brother in law, and their wife, and Stalin's son was captured as a POW, and he allowed his son to die. From this, Stalin became a world leader in the big state. They were willing to ally with the Soviets despite disagreeing with him because of the threat the Nazis faced. The Soviets held the Nazis off long enough that the other countries realized the threat the Nazis faced, and they acted. Poland is stuck between Germany and Russia. So, they are sacrificed. Stalin goes to the Allies, and says that he needs help, he’s been fighting the Nazis by himself. He believes the Allies should attack the West so weaken Germany, which eventually happens and he is correct. This adds to Stalin's credibility. Because they are capitalists, Stalin believes that the Allies will negotiate with Hitler as soon as they can sell out the Soviets. So, he pushed the Red Army to aggressively pursue Hither, the Allies were also racing there for a different reason, they didn’t want to give a lot of the land to the Russians. Stalin encouraged his soldiers to rape Germans, and to kill as many citizens as possible. It didn't matter if they were Nazis or not. They also start to liberate concentration camps. The war ends, the Soviets are now a superpower. The reason for the Cold War starting is heavily debated, who started it? Was it Americans, or Russians? Could it have been stopped? The Soviet Union was scared of being invaded again, given recent history. However, the SU are now more powerful than after WW1, they are now in the Security Council and the United Nations. Stalin says that he wants Poland to be free, but friendly to the SU. That’s not what happens. The elections that do happen are not free or fair. Stalin does not trust former allies. In 1947, the United States agreed to the Marshall Plan, this is a generous infusion of American dollars, billions, into Europe, to help it recover from the war, with almost no strings attached. Stalin doesn’t trust it. He’s suspicious of those that participated in the war coming back to the Soviet Union, he worries his people have been Westernized. Stalin is angry at the donations, he believes Communism is being destroyed. He refuses the marshall plan, and forces various countries in the East to refuse it too. He threatens invasion. Day 18 Notes The Marshall Plan was made in part to stop eastern countries from becoming communist. The tensions in the Cold war ramp up. The Soviets stop food from going into Berlin if it’s not given to them by the West. The West ignored the demands, flew over the blockade that the Soviets had set up, and delivered food. The Soviets are still somewhat in a position of weakness, not as strong as the US, so they back down. Stalin is at his most powerful, but is more suspicious than ever. He was scared of the different military leaders, as some of them were executed. He believes some of his people that had been in the war had been exposed to the western version of living. He starts having his own family members executed, his daughter escapes, and actually advocates against him Stalin's anti-semitism became stronger during this time as well. Stalin died in March 1953, they had not attended a meeting, so had been scared that he would kill them, so it took several days for anyone to realize he was dead. He had tens of millions of people killed during his reign, de stalinization began almost immediately, although the dictatorship was maintained for decades. Mao Zedong Qing Dynasty Was a Manchu family, a small minority within the massive country of China. However, they are the royal family. This was not well received by most of the country, since Manchus were considered outsiders. Most of China are peasants, Mao comes from a royal family, but his father had been a peasant, and had worked his way up to being a successful farmer, where he hired people. He was rural, but being a land owner at the time was a big deal in China. Mao is outspoken and rebellious, that doesn’t fit into society. His mother is a devout Buddhist, and is illiterate. She had bound her feet for most of her life, which was a tradition that deformed the feet of those that did it. Mao wants to be more than the farmer that his dad is. Day 19 Notes Sino Japanese war is a war that the Japanese won soundly over the Chinese, where the Chinese called it the Century of Darkness. The Chinese were unable to protect land, and were unable to modernize their military. This is when America gets involved, takes over Spain, and wages war against the Filipino population. This was seen as a good step towards China, America has interest in China for economic possibilities. However, America is late in the game, compared to the European powers. They try to negotiate, this doesn’t go well, the negotiation, rather unconvincingly saying that they should negotiate together against the Chinese, without taking them, but we’re not taking them over, just control the whole economy. The Chinese Revolution is next, moderate reforms at first, such as local elected assemblies. Don’t have much power, but the idea is you can give them a place to vent anger. Dr. Sun Yat sen founded the Revolutionary Alliance, he believed in nationalism. He founded a political party as well. Dedicated to overthrowing the monarchy. The Qing dynasty was overthrown, though Mao is not a part of the Revolution. Shikai names himself emperor, and only lasts three days. China started to enter world politics, called Warlordism. China is disintegrated into regional warlords and competing authorities. Remnants of Shikais Beiyang government. Sun Yat-sen returned from exile to the south, re-established the Guomindang, and tried to organize a rival power. May 4th Movement, student led protest against Treaty of Versailles. Left wing radicalism gained in popularity. The treaty was an agreement they had to get stuff back that had been taken from them from Germany, however, it was given to Japan. It was around here when Mao started reading Marx, anything he can get translated. So, the Chinese Communist Party came into play in 1921. To this day, they rule the government in China. Mao was converted to Communism in two years, and was a founding participant. He organizes labour and students. He is concerned about the anti-nationalism parts of it however. Is looked at as a voice of the people because he was well educated while also being a peasant at the same time. It was Guomindang and the CCP worked together to oust the Beiyang government and the warlords. Chiang Kai shek Sun Yat sen died in 1925, succeeded by Kai shek. He was a military leader in the Guomindang, leader of the right wing faction of the party. Keep the United Front, but only for convenience. Mao began to theorize more about the centrality of the peasantry for the achievement of true Chinese Communism. Mobilization of mass peasantry, radical transformation from spontaneous mass action. Day 20 Notes In 1926-28, warlordism was broken, Chiang established a government in Nanjing. Started to purge Communists and leftists in 26. Mao was unsure at this point about supporting the United Front, but stayed the course. The People would decide the revolution, not the United Front. So, the White Terror starts in 1927, Chiang betrays the Communists, slaughtering thousands. Mao and roughly 1000 communists organize the Chinese Red army. Shiang is trying to wipe out the Communist party in one fell swoop. Mao leads his faction to killing thousands of political opponents. Chiang becomes obsessed with wiping out communists, they lose a whole region of China under his rule, and they are forced to negotiate with the Japanese. Only Mao's stronghold was left, and they had to abandon it. So, what do they do? Why don’t we just leave, and walk somewhere else? We need to pick a time period where Chiang is busy, then we can try and escape. The Long March 1934-35, a 6000 mile walk, 18 mountain ranges. Roughly 70,000 people died, one of the reasons for that is that soldiers were following them, any mistakes, they die. Mao consolidated support by acting against Soviet advice. Portrayed the March as moving against Japanese imperialism. Guomindang was weak in face of foreign influence. They can’t fully wipe them out though. There are only 20,000 communists left, yet they are able to rebuild. Mao almost dies on the march. Japan invaded 1937, resulting in GMD-CCP United Front, CCP and Mao proved to be more capable at reaching out to the peasantry, crushing internal opposition and enforcing ruthless discipline centred in Mao's interpretations of Marxism. Red Army forces were often on the frontlines against Japan. Shiang is forced to constantly give concessions to the Japanese, he can’t do anything else, CCP calls him a cronie, he complains that it’s only because he has to deal with the Communists. Shiang is now told he can’t work with the Japanese anymore, they just signed a deal with the Nazis and Fascist Italy. They get tired of Shiang, so his own military kidnaps him. Shiang concedes, and says they will focus on Japan as well now. Day 21 Notes Another new wife for Mao, named Jiang Qing. For WW2, Guonmindang and CCP forces forced a stalemate on Japan. The Red Army cultivated grassroots support in occupied China. Guomindang is not in occupied China and continues in corruption and even sometimes its anti CCP actions. Mao Zedong Thought: Became the official ideology of the CCP, Rectification Movement, and self criticism to save people from error. Mao used the fact that Sheng needed help to take over. One of the reasons Japan lost is due to the violence they were inflicting, they were unable to gain allies. Part of it too is Shiang tries to force people into joining his army, his government is also super corrupt. IN this period, the SU is dealing with something else, which helps Mao. Japan and Germany had terrible communication with each other, in part because Hitler didn’t want to communicate with them, because he thought they were lesser. For Pearl Harbour, for example, Germany didn’t advise Japan on that. China was viewed as the fourth of the big three, and was underestimated. Not consulted on the plan to bomb Japan by the Allies, the Allies also didn’t trust Sheng's government. They didn’t understand the GMD CCP hatred, didn’t understand the appeal of the CCp in China, and didn’t see China as an issue in the postwar era. Mao agreed to American backed negotiations for a coalition government. Mao and Sheng are actively trying to backstab each other at this time. The United Nations were formed in October 1945, General Assembly, one nation, one vote, where most of the big stuff happens. Security Council: 5 permanent, 6 rotating members, China was one of the 5 permanent members, Chiang's Republic of China would hold this seat until 1971. Another Civil War breaks out between CCP and GMD forces. Mao ordered strategic retreat into the countryside and abandonment, which had been going on for almost 40 years at this point. Mao knew the longer the war went, it would be worse for GMD. GMD corruption, reliance on conscription, reliance on foreign money. They rely on the people's support, and have far more discipline. They outsmart Shiang's army. CCP now occupied Beijing, Nanjing, and Shanghai. Chiang fled to Taiwan, with men, civilians, and money. They are still the Republic of China. Mao declared the People's Republic of China, there are now technically two Chinas. Day 22 Notes Korean War Communist North Korea invaded Western allied South Korea, prompting a United Nations backed, US led force. Mao was pressured into involvement by North Korean weakness and US strength. China lost 500k troops, stood against the USs, who now was committed to permanently protect Taiwan. The economy was militarized. Eventually, China gets pulled in, North Korea gets pretty far, but the US forces push the North Koreans back. The US forces were told not to cross a border line so as to not provoke the Chinese, the men didn’t listen, and the Chinese entered the war. War ends in a stalemate, with little to no territory changing hands. Mao commits to building a massive bomb, and announces a five year plan. To collectivize agriculture to support the military and industrialization. Thousands were executed in a two year span. America decides that Taiwan needs to be defended, which sends a massive fleet to protect them from China, the forces are still there. Taiwan at this time was run by Shiang's government. China and Taiwan are often still considered the same, much to the chagrin of people from Taiwan. They launch the Hundred Flowers Campaign. The Chinese people are too afraid to criticize Mao because he was in power, so he’s willing to criticize himself, then they are willing to criticize him. He encourages this feedback. A few months later, he kills them all. He was trying to make the enemies of the people clear. It led to the greatest famine in human history, killing at least 34 million people. Any suffering was covered up. Mao fails to take responsibility for this famine. Mao is so determined to prove himself right he exports grain to the Soviet Union to impress them, leading to more deaths. The alternative to Stalin's communism is Mao's, which isn’t anything better. Maos has a book on how to fight imperialists, which enables people around the world to model themselves after Mao. Soviets don’t like this. The two of them finally realize that the two countries need to learn how to live together, Mao looks down upon the Soviets for backing off of Stalin's approach. Mao also believes they are trying to isolate China. They broke diplomatic relations in 1961, that was the case for about 25 years, almost going to war multiple times. Mao retreated from the public eye, and focused on developing a cult of personality. He realizes that his rule has been a disaster, but he needs a scapegoat. So, he allows two other people to clean up the mess, to enact some reforms to help the people recover. They were similar to Stalin, allowed some private property, didn't take their food, etc. He allows this so that he can blame them later for China being poorly run. A key part of this cult of personality is the little red book. It’s been printed hundreds of millions of times, it’s actually known as Quotations of Mao, literally just quotes of wisdom from Mao that spread his cult of personality. In 1964, China tested its first bomb. This changes how the West sees China, gaining them respect out of fear. Day 23 Notes Mao is being convinced that the Revolution is being corrupted from within. Starting in 1966, Chinese society was purified of bourgeois intellectualism. Empowered youth to murder authority figures. Mao thought the SU had lost its way and condemned Stalin's legacy, he believed the Communist Party didn’t care about the Revolution anymore, just staying in power. He didn’t want this to happen in China. The Chinese had really struggled, but Mao blaming himself wasn’t an option, so he advertised that the Revolution was being corrupted. May 16th, Mao announced that some people in authority were capitalists, he said that they would try to seize power. Striking fear among the people by bringing up the Soviet Union as an example. The Gang of Four stands out in Mao's camp as being especially violent and aggressive, one of them being Mao's wife, despite not having a great relationship. Young people should attack their parents, professors, and unleash a tidal wave. There was no significant challenge to him at this time. China is now in social and economic chaos. Mao disbanded the Red Guards, ordered them to be labour for peasants. The People's Liberation Army is now tasked with protecting the Revolution. In the 70’s, Mao was almost dead. He continues to purge the parties. He is concerned with what will happen when he dies. SU and China are still bickering about who the Communist Party truly is. Mao then decides to meet with the West, specifically Richard Nixon. Nixon is a strong capitalist, why is he meeting with Mao in China? The talks aren’t extensive, more symbolic, but there are some trade talks, and it ends up increasing trade between the two of them. China opens its markets up to the world eventually. He likely had Parkinsons, maybe ALS. Addicted to drugs, poor hearing, likely was blind. Multiple heart attacks as well. Died in 1976. Day 25 Notes Idi Amin is our African dictator. Uganda is divided significantly regionally, tribally, ethnically. Buganda was viewed by the British as civilized by Africans. The Bugandans were propped up by the British as sort of being trusted and capable. The Northerners were viewed as backwards and primitive. It was claimed they had no government, which wasn’t true, though it wasn’t very capable. They were called Muslims, maybe even Arabic, however, they were good fighters, it was all based on racist assumptions. Britain used these divisions to their advantage by convincing the population that they will need to oversee them. Idi Amin was a Muslim convert, his father was a police officer and in the King's Army Rifles, and his mother was a traditional healer, or witch according to the British. The British claimed they wanted to remove slavery, they just changed it to indebted servitude, which they viewed as the same thing by raising taxes to such an extent that most would have to do it. Idi was one of many that joined the military to avoid this. He enlisted in 1946, and gained a reputation as an effective soldier. He is very violent, and helps quash Black African resistance to British rule in Uganda. Through the 50’s, he helped quash the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya. He was seen as a stooge of the British, this was because he was a part of the British forces that took down African resistance, he betrayed his people. Critics of that would say that assuming that is racist in and of itself, he may not have identified with black people necessarily, he was also following orders. British forces viewed Amin as an ideal candidate if armed forces were to be Africanized, although that is not the plan that they favour. Gets to a point where he is one of two black supervisors. Amin rose quickly, Ugandan independence came in 1962 under PM Milton Obote. Amin was very important during this time under Obote, he helped to calm down mutinies and present grievances to Obote, who made concessions. He was seen as defending Ugandan rights, while also proving himself to the British. There are significant revolts during this time, where the Africans recognize and believe that the British are still running the show. Amin uses the fact he is one of them to appeal to them. Amin takes demands from the people to Obote, which show to be reasonable. It doesn’t last, but helps to prove Amin. Obote, worried for his powers, goes on the offensive, suspending the constitution. Amin is appointed head of the armed forces. He is united Uganda, whether anyone likes it or not. This created a rift between Amin and Obotoe after a while. They negotiated with the British during the Cold War, threatening to not help them if they didn't give in. Amin is promoted to commander of the army during this time as well. Amin knows at this point Obotoe will try to kill him, but nonetheless Obotoe gets convinced to go to an important meeting in Singapore. Amin overthrows his government while Obotoe is at the meeting. Amin is named temporary leader. Immediately, Amin purges the military, which is the only thing he seems to know how to do. He relies on an army from his hometown, which he gives special privileges to. Obote allied forces attacked Uganda in 1972 of people that didn't like Amin. Repression increases significantly during this time. Amin orders the expulsion of all Asians, he calls himself the Black Hitler. Thousands of people have to leave during this time. The West condemns this, but most Ugandans support it. But it devastated the Ugandan economy. Day 28 Notes The Vietnam war went poorly for the States because they weren’t willing to sacrifice their own people. Bombs were dropped on Cambodia, an innocent party, in 1973, by the Americans. It kills a lot of Vietnamese, but the Vietnamese don’t care about losing people, eventually, they realize the Americans won’t keep killing citizens like that. They reach a treaty, but the treaty is quickly broken. So the Democratic Republic of Kampuchea takes over. They are unknowns, they were not known as the people that had taken over Cambodia. In fact, the citizens think they defeated the Americans, and the war was going to stop. They had been in the rural areas through most of this area. Within weeks, the Kampuchea over evacuated everyone in the cities, everyone was an enemy of the people that needed to be eradicated or removed. Leads to significant deaths as the Kampuchea starts to purge, if they aren’t helpful to the revolution, they are killed. Sick people, old people, children. They abolish money, and all forms of religion. Money is no longer worth anything. Poi Pot is the general secretary of the Democratic party, but no one knows he’s the leader, as he lies in the background. The head of state tries to rein them in, ends up getting kidnapped and becomes a puppet leader. To the detriment of the Cambodian people, they continue to rule for years. Collectivize agriculture to gather money, even though they had gotten rid of money. They would be able to stand on their own against their enemies, primarily Vietnam. They wanted the country to be self-sufficient. Pot was very convinced it only didn’t work because people didn’t try hard enough, so he executed people as his system didn’t work. Pot arrests all the people he’s been allied with for years. Pot also abolishes education, turning high school into an interrogation complex, which is now a genocide museum. One example is over 5000 people were in the place, only 6 survived. The people from April 17th were turned into slaves, many of which died. They went to war with Vietnam in 1977. A series of border raids are carried out by the Cambodians, which in response leads to attacks. He resented Vietnam for believing that they didn’ t respect Cambodia. Su supported Vietnam, China supported Cambodia, became a proxy war between two communist nations, and supported by communist parents. It doesn’t go well with Cambodia, who had killed all of the people that could have served in the army. When Vietnam is able to liberate prisoners, Pot kills the soldiers, this method obviously has consequences. Most of the fighting takes place in Cambodia. In 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia fully, which they won easily and quickly. Vietnam then creates their own Communist government. They kick out Poi Pot. They publicize Poi Pot's crimes. Vietnam gives the government the same name as the previous one, basically a puppet government for Vietnam. Poi Pot and some others are able to flee to Thailand. By 1980, everyone knows what Poi Pot did, in less than four years, they had killed about 25% of the Cambodian population. However, because of Vietnam's reputation, Thailand agrees to protect Poi Pot and his people, in exchange for China not funding Vietnam. So, China sends supplies and pays for Poi Pot, and so does America, they reject the new government in Cambodia because they lost in Vietnam. America supports Poi Pot being protected and funded by Thailand and China. Pot carries out raids in Cambodia from Thailand trying to retake it. Also means they keep their seats in the United Nations for 14 years after his crimes were made public. The justification made by the US is that Pot isn’t running the party anymore, which he claims, but he’s lying. In the mid 90’s, Cambodia had an election under the supervision of the UN, which didn't last very long. This ends all the international support for Poi Pot. In 1997, he ordered the murder of his closest ally and their family. Finally, his party has enough, and they consider Poi Pot a traitor, Pot dies while on trial by heart attack. Some repetition from previous tests. Need to know authors' last names and who they wrote about. Will focus on major events, themes, people, and organizations. Won’t be testing on specific dates or stats. Guest lectures can be included. Most questions will be about a specific dictator, although some might be on themes. What were the themes or the focus of specific readings? List of Authors of Readings + Subheadings Non-Specific Dictators: Dictatorship: Modern Tyranny Between Leviathan and Behemoth by Jan C Behrends Benito Mussolini: Mussolini by Peter Neville Chapters 2,5,6,9 Sub Headings: Chapter 2: The Achievement of Power The Genesis Fascism The Red Two Years The Death of Liberal Italy The Taking of Power The March on Rome Fascism: revolution or counter-revolution? Mussolini and Parliament The Fascist Grand Council The Voluntary Militia for National Security The 1924 Elections Chapter 5: Italian society under Mussolini, 1931–39 Winning Over Italy's Youth Women Under Fascism The Media Corporativism and the Great Depression The Dopolavoro Opposition in Fascist Italy Anti-Semitism Was there a Fascist consensus? Chapter 6: The Ethiopian War, 1935–36 The end of the old diplomacy, 1932–35 The Austrian crisis Fascism in Africa The Ethiopian Question The invasion of Ethiopia’ The Hoare–Laval Pact The consequences of the war Chapter 9: The last phase, 1943–45 The foundation of the Italian Social Republic A dictator's twilight The Congress of Verona The last days Conclusion Mussolini in retrospect Adolf Hitler Hitler by Ian Kershaw Eva Braun: Life With Hitler by Heike Gortenmaker War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust by Doris Bergen Kershaw Chapter 1: Power of the Idea No subheadings Braun Chapter 9: Isolation of War The Outbreak of War The Berghof of Fuhrer Headquarters The Beginning of the End Bergen Death Throes and Killing Frenzies Attacks on the Nazi Regime The Soviet Advance Allied Bombing and Conditions in Germany D Day - Allied Invasion from the West The Plot of 20 July, 1944 The Volkssturm The Warsaw Uprising Germany's Allies and the Jews of Hungary Auschwitz and the end of war The Death Marches Final Collapse Joseph Stalin Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda, and Dissent, 1934- 1941 by Sarah Davis Stalin by Hiroaki Kuromiya Davis Chapter 9: The leader cult in official discourse The evolution of the cult The cult as official culture Chapter 10: Affirmative representations of the leader and the leader cult The leader as benefactor The traditional defender of the people The Charismatic Leader Kuromiya Chapter 7: Twilight of the god Victory Cold War Death Also, supposed to read Conclusion ig Mao Zedong From Urban Radical to Rural Revolutionary: Mao from the 1920s to 1937 by Brantly Womack War, Cosmopolitanism, and Authority: Mao from 1937-1956 by Han J

Le Bourgeois gentilhomme - Voc thématique 2-Karteikarten | Quizlet