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1. Exploration & Native Americans Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. Wanted to find a western route to Asia. Reached the Caribbean instead. His voyages began sustained European contact with the Americas. Led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Conquistadores Spanish explorers/conquerors who sought gold, land, and converts. Helped Spain conquer large Native American empires. Often used military force and alliances with rival Native groups. Mayas, Incas, Aztecs Major civilizations in the Americas before European conquest. Aztecs: centered in Mexico; conquered by Cortés. Incas: centered in the Andes/South America; conquered by Pizarro. Mayas: Central America; famous for cities, writing, mathematics, and astronomy. Hernando Cortés Spanish conquistador. Conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519–1521. Defeated Montezuma/Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlán. Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire. Operated in present-day Peru. Montezuma Aztec ruler when Cortés arrived. Also called Moctezuma II. His empire was eventually conquered by Cortés and his allies. Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who explored the southeastern part of what became the United States. His expedition encountered Native peoples and reached the Mississippi River. Francisco de Coronado Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest and Great Plains. Searched for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River. His voyages helped France establish claims in North America. John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England. Explored the North Atlantic coast of North America in 1497. Helped England establish a claim to North American territory. Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who supported exploration. Helped Portugal develop navigation and sailing technology. Portuguese exploration contributed to the development of the Atlantic slave trade. ⸻ 2. Spanish, French & English Colonization Joint-stock company A company where investors pool money to fund a business. Why important: English colonies such as Virginia were partly financed through joint-stock companies. Virginia Company English joint-stock company. Founded Jamestown in 1607. Investors hoped to make money from the colony. Jamestown First permanent English settlement in North America, 1607. Located in Virginia. Suffered from disease, starvation, conflict, and poor leadership. Tobacco eventually helped make the colony profitable. Tidewater Coastal area of Virginia and surrounding colonies. Early English settlements were concentrated here. Piedmont Inland region between the Tidewater/coastal plain and Appalachian Mountains. Settlement expanded into this area as colonies grew. Coureurs de bois French “runners of the woods.” French colonists/traders who lived and traveled among Native Americans. Participated heavily in the fur trade. Samuel de Champlain French explorer. Founded Quebec in 1608. Known as the “Father of New France.” Developed alliances with Native Americans. ⸻ 3. Roanoke & Early Virginia Sir Walter Raleigh English supporter of colonization. Sponsored the attempted settlement at Roanoke. Roanoke English colony established in the 1580s. Eventually disappeared. Called the “Lost Colony.” John Smith Leader at Jamestown. Helped organize the settlement and enforce discipline. Famous for his relationship with Pocahontas, although later accounts are disputed. “Starving Time” Winter of 1609–1610 at Jamestown. Colonists experienced extreme hunger, disease, and death. Demonstrated how difficult early colonization was. John Rolfe Helped make Virginia economically successful by growing tobacco. Married Pocahontas. Tobacco became Virginia’s major cash crop. Headright system Colonists received land for bringing people to Virginia. Encouraged immigration. Helped create large plantations and contributed to social/economic inequality. Freeman A colonist who possessed certain political rights, including the ability to participate in government. Political rights were generally limited to certain white male colonists. House of Burgesses Created in Virginia in 1619. First representative legislative assembly in the English colonies. Important development in colonial self-government. 1618 reforms of the Virginia Company The Virginia Company changed its policies to attract settlers and make Virginia successful. Included: More representative government. Greater incentives for settlers. Expansion of land ownership. Greater economic opportunity. Result: Virginia became more attractive to settlers. ⸻ 4. Puritans & Religion John Calvin Protestant religious thinker. Developed Calvinism. Believed in predestination. Predestination The belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Puritanism Protestant movement that wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritans believed the English church still contained too many Catholic practices. Separatists Puritans who believed the Church of England could not be reformed. Wanted to separate completely from it. The Pilgrims were Separatists. Non-Separatist Puritans Wanted to reform the Church of England rather than leave it completely. Many settled Massachusetts Bay. Pilgrims Separatist Puritans. Settled at Plymouth in 1620. Signed the Mayflower Compact. Mayflower Compact Agreement signed by Plymouth settlers. Established self-government based on majority rule. Important early example of colonial self-government. Plymouth Colony founded by Pilgrims in 1620. Later became part of Massachusetts. William Bradford Pilgrim leader and governor of Plymouth. Helped maintain the colony. Wrote about Plymouth’s early history. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded by Puritans in 1630. Much larger than Plymouth. Centered around Boston. Governed according to Puritan religious beliefs. John Winthrop Governor of Massachusetts Bay. Described Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill.” “City upon a hill” Winthrop’s idea that Massachusetts should serve as an example of a successful Christian society to the world. Covenant A religious agreement between God and a community. Puritans believed their communities had a special covenant with God. “Visible saints” Puritans who demonstrated that they had received God’s grace and were considered members of the church. “Invisible saints” Those believed to have God’s grace/salvation, even though humans could not truly know who was saved. “Saving grace” The belief that God’s grace could lead a person to salvation. ⸻ 5. New England Religious Conflicts Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who challenged Massachusetts religious leaders. Believed faith/grace was more important than following religious rules. Put on trial and banished from Massachusetts. Shows the limits of religious tolerance in Massachusetts. Roger Williams Founded Rhode Island. Believed in: Religious freedom Separation of church and government Fairer treatment of Native Americans Banished from Massachusetts. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639. Established a representative government in Connecticut. Often considered one of the first written constitutions in America. King Philip’s War 1675–1676. Major conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans led by Metacom, whom colonists called King Philip. Resulted in enormous destruction and loss of Native American land and power. Toleration Act of 1649 Maryland law granting religious toleration to Christians. Intended especially to protect Catholics. Important early example of religious toleration, although it was limited. ⸻ 6. Massachusetts Education Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 Required towns to establish schools when they reached certain population sizes. Why? Puritans wanted people to be able to read the Bible. Important: Shows how strongly education and religion were connected in Puritan society. ⸻ 7. Colonial Regions New England Colonies Examples: Massachusetts Plymouth Connecticut Rhode Island New Hampshire Important characteristics Religious motivations Puritan influence Small farms Town-centered communities Fishing Shipbuilding Lumber Commerce Less suitable climate for large cash-crop plantations ⸻ Middle Colonies Examples: New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Important characteristics Religious diversity More ethnic diversity Fertile farmland Grain production Large ports Trade Cities such as New York and Philadelphia ⸻ Southern Colonies Examples: Virginia Maryland North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Important characteristics Plantation agriculture Tobacco, rice, indigo Slavery Large landowners Warm climate Greater social/economic inequality ⸻ 8. Types of Colonies Corporate colony Colony controlled by a company. Example: Virginia originally operated under the Virginia Company. Royal colony Controlled directly by the English king. Governor appointed by the king. Proprietary colony Granted by the king to an individual or group. Proprietor had significant control. Example: Pennsylvania → William Penn Charter of Liberties Early New York document providing certain rights and outlining representative government. Associated with efforts to establish political participation in the colony. ⸻ 9. William Penn & Quakers William Penn Quaker. Founded Pennsylvania. Wanted a colony based on religious tolerance. Had relatively peaceful relationships with Native Americans. Quakers / Society of Friends Protestant religious group. Believed in spiritual equality. Rejected many traditional church structures. Supported religious tolerance. Women had greater religious participation than in many other colonial communities. George Calvert Also known as Lord Baltimore. Catholic Englishman. Received land that became Maryland. Wanted a place where Catholics could practice their religion more freely. ⸻ 10. Georgia James Oglethorpe Founded Georgia in 1732. Intended Georgia partly as a buffer against Spanish Florida. Also wanted to create opportunities for poor English people. ⸻ 11. Pennsylvania & New York Patroonship Dutch system in New Netherland. Large land grants were given to wealthy individuals called patroons. Encouraged large estates. Quitrent A fee/rent paid to a proprietor for use of land. Common in proprietary colonies. ⸻ 12. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion 1676 Virginia. Nathaniel Bacon led settlers against Native Americans and Virginia’s government. Bacon’s followers believed Governor Berkeley was not protecting frontier settlers. Why important? Exposed class tensions between wealthy planters and poorer colonists. Afterward, Virginia increasingly relied on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. ⸻ 13. Colonial Social Classes Indentured servants Europeans who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America. After their contract ended, they could become free. Freedom dues Things given to indentured servants when their contract ended. Could include: Clothing Tools Land or supplies Redemptioners European immigrants who agreed to work for a period of time after arriving in America to pay off transportation costs. ⸻ 14. Slavery Chattel slavery System in which enslaved people were treated legally as property. Slavery became hereditary. Enslaved people had extremely limited/no legal freedom. Middle Passage Forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. Part of the triangular trade. Conditions were extremely overcrowded and deadly. Slave codes Laws restricting the rights and freedoms of enslaved people. They often: Prevented movement. Restricted education. Restricted assembly. Defined enslaved people as property. Made slavery hereditary. ⸻ 15. Stono Rebellion Stono Rebellion 1739, South Carolina. Enslaved Africans rebelled and attempted to escape toward Spanish Florida. Colonial authorities eventually suppressed the rebellion. Why important? Led to even stricter slave laws. ⸻ 16. Triangular Trade A trading system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Simplified: Europe → Africa Manufactured goods Africa → Americas Enslaved Africans Americas → Europe Sugar Tobacco Rice Other raw materials ⸻ 17. Mercantilism Economic theory used by European empires. Basic idea: Colonies exist to benefit the mother country. England wanted colonies to: Supply raw materials. Buy English manufactured goods. Increase England’s wealth. Strengthen England’s economy. ⸻ 18. Navigation Acts English laws regulating colonial trade. They required much colonial trade to: Use English ships. Pass through English-controlled channels. Benefit England. Goal: strengthen mercantilism. ⸻ 19. Molasses Act 1733 Taxed foreign molasses imported into British colonies. Designed to protect British sugar producers in the Caribbean. Colonists often avoided or resisted the tax through smuggling. Woolens Act Restricted colonial production/trade of woolen goods. Intended to protect English manufacturers. Hat Act Restricted colonial production/export of hats. Another example of Britain controlling colonial manufacturing. Iron Act Encouraged production of certain raw iron products in the colonies but restricted production of finished iron goods. Britain wanted colonies to supply raw materials while buying manufactured products from Britain. BIG IDEA: These laws show mercantilism and British attempts to control colonial economies. ⸻ 20. Dominion of New England Dominion of New England Created by King James II in 1686. Combined several New England colonies under one government. Why? Increase royal control. Enforce Navigation Acts. Reduce colonial self-government. Sir Edmund Andros Royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Strongly enforced royal policies. Very unpopular with many colonists. ⸻ 21. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution — 1688 English people and Parliament removed James II. William and Mary became monarchs. Increased the power of Parliament. Colonial effect: Colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England government. Sir Edmund Andros was removed. Colonists regained some self-government. ⸻ 22. Political Deference Political deference The belief that ordinary people should respect and defer to wealthy, powerful, or socially prominent leaders. Colonial society was often hierarchical. ⸻ 23. Lower House of the Legislature The elected part of a colonial legislature representing ordinary property-owning colonists. Examples: House of Burgesses Colonial assemblies Important: These assemblies helped establish the tradition of representative government. ⸻ 24. The Great Awakening Great Awakening Religious revival movement in the 1730s–1740s. Preachers emphasized: Personal faith Emotional religious experiences Salvation Individual relationships with God It challenged established churches and religious authorities. Jonathan Edwards Famous Great Awakening preacher. Known for the sermon: “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Emphasized God’s power and the need for conversion. George Whitefield Extremely popular traveling preacher. Preached throughout the colonies. Helped spread the Great Awakening. Old Lights People who supported traditional, established religious practices. New Lights People who supported the emotional revival-style religion of the Great Awakening. Baptists Protestant group that grew during the Great Awakening. Emphasized personal faith and baptism. Helped increase religious diversity. ⸻ 25. John Peter Zenger John Peter Zenger New York printer/journalist. Put on trial for criticizing the colonial governor. His lawyer argued that truthful statements should not be considered libel. Why important? His trial became an important symbol associated with freedom of the press. ⸻ 26. Maryland & Carolina Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina Document associated with governing Carolina. Created a hierarchical political/social structure. Helped establish an aristocratic plantation society. Slavery became increasingly important in Carolina. Established churches A government-supported official church. In some colonies, taxes helped support the established church. Important contrast: Established churches = government + religion connected. Rhode Island/Pennsylvania = greater religious freedom. ⸻ 27. Great Migration Great Migration, 1630–1643 Large migration of English Puritans to Massachusetts Bay and other New England colonies. Why? Religious motivations Political/religious conflict in England Desire to build Puritan communities Important: This was different from the much later Great Migration of African Americans during the 20th century. ⸻ 28. Enclosure Movement Enclosure Movement In England, landowners enclosed common lands and combined small fields into larger private farms. Effect: Some small farmers lost access to land. Increased movement of people toward cities and overseas colonies. Helped contribute to English migration to America. ⸻ 29. “City Upon a Hill” vs. Religious Tolerance Know this contrast for APUSH: Massachusetts Bay → Puritan religious society → Limited religious tolerance Rhode Island → Roger Williams → Religious freedom Pennsylvania → William Penn → Quakerism + religious tolerance Maryland → Catholic refuge → Toleration Act of 1649 ⸻ ⭐ The MOST IMPORTANT Connections to Know These are the connections your teacher is likely looking for in APUSH questions. Tobacco → Virginia John Rolfe → tobacco → profitable Virginia → plantations → labor demand → indentured servants → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → class conflict → elites become more suspicious of poor white workers → increased reliance on African slavery Puritans → Massachusetts Puritans → Great Migration → Massachusetts Bay → John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Separatists → Plymouth Separatists → Pilgrims → Mayflower → Plymouth → Mayflower Compact Religious disagreement → Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson/Roger Williams → conflict with Massachusetts → Rhode Island → religious freedom Quakers → Pennsylvania William Penn → Quakers → Pennsylvania → religious tolerance Mercantilism → Navigation Acts Mercantilism → Britain wants colonies to benefit England → Navigation Acts → trade restrictions Great Awakening → religious change Great Awakening → emotional religion → New Lights → challenges established churches → increased religious diversity Slavery → plantation economy Cash crops → labor demand → African slavery → slave codes → racial hierarchy

Unit 3 Northwest Territory: Location - The region south of the Great Lakes, north and west of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River (modern-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) Settlement expectations - Orderly Grid System: Land was grid-surveyed into square townships (36 square miles) to prevent chaotic land claims. Section 16 of each township was reserved to fund public education. Path to Statehood: Established a 3-stage process for territories to achieve statehood on equal footing with the original 13 states once they reached 60,000 free inhabitants. Civil Liberties & Prohibitions: Guaranteed trial by jury and freedom of religion. Crucially, it banned slavery north of the Ohio River, setting the first federal geographic boundary on the institution. Articles of Confederation: structure of government - A unicameral (one-house) legislature. There was no executive branch (no president to enforce laws) and no national judiciary to settle interstate legal conflicts. importance of Congress - Congress was the sole body of national power. Each state received exactly one vote, meaning small states held equal power to large states Weaknesses - No power to tax: Congress could only request money from states. No power to regulate commerce: Led to interstate tariff wars. Rigid thresholds: Passing major laws required a 9/13 supermajority; amending the Articles required a 13/13 unanimous vote. No standing national army: Left the government defenseless against foreign threats or domestic rebellion. Shay’s Rebellion: Causes - Western Massachusetts farmers (many Revolutionary War veterans) faced heavy state taxes, severe post-war economic depression, and foreclosures on their farms by coastal merchants and courts. Led by Daniel Shays, they shut down debt courts. Outcomes - The weak central government was unable to raise an army to suppress the rebellion; a privately funded state militia finally stopped it. This exposed the profound weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, spreading fear of "mobocracy" among elites and directly prompting the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Whiskey Rebellion: Causes - Poor western Pennsylvania farmers protested an excise tax on whiskey enacted by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to pay off national war debts. Whiskey was used as currency and a primary way to market surplus grain. Unique elements - Unlike Shays' Rebellion, President George Washington invoked his new constitutional powers and personally led a massive federalized militia of 13,000 troops to crush the insurrection. Effects - Demonstrating the immense contrast with Shays' Rebellion, it proved that the new federal government under the Constitution possessed the executive power to enforce federal laws and suppress domestic insurrections. It solidified federal authority but alienated westerners, bolstering the nascent Democratic-Republican opposition. Structure of US Government under Constitution – separation of power - Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces laws), and Judicial (interprets laws) checks and balances - A system allowing branches to limit the actions of others. Examples: The President can veto congressional legislation; Congress can override a veto or impeach the President; the Senate must approve judicial nominations. Federalism - The constitutional division and sharing of political power between the national (federal) government and the individual state governments. popular sovereignty - The principle that political power resides with the people, who sustain government legitimacy through consent via elected representatives. supremacy clause - Article VI; Establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties constitute the "supreme law of the land," overriding conflicting state laws. Issue of slavery: who supported - Southern delegates (e.g., South Carolina, Georgia) fiercely protected slavery as vital to their agrarian, plantation economies. who opposed - Many Northern delegates opposed slavery or its expansion, but prioritized national unity and economic concessions over immediate abolition. position taken by the Founders - The Founders chose pragmatic compromise over moral resolution to keep the Southern states in the Union. They conspicuously avoided using the words "slave" or "slavery" in the text but protected the institution through: Three-Fifths Compromise: Counted 60% of a state’s enslaved population for both congressional representation and federal taxation. Slave Trade Clause: Prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade for 20 years (until 1808). Fugitive Slave Clause: Required free states to return escaped enslaved laborers to their owners. Concepts debated by Federalist and Anti-Federalists during and after Washington’s presidency; be familiar with people associated with each party Era/Context Federalists Anti-Federalists/Democratic-Republicans Ratification Debate (1787-1788) Supported the Constitution. Wanted a strong central government to maintain order. Written defenses: The Federalist Papers. Opposed the Constitution. Feared a strong central government would mimic British tyranny and squash individual rights. Demanded a Bill of Rights. First Party System (1790s) Federalist Party Democratic-Republican Party Key Leaders Alexander Hamilton, John Adams. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison. Constitutional Interpretation Loose constructionism (broad use of the "elastic/necessary and proper" clause). Strict constructionism (the federal government only has powers explicitly stated in the Constitution). Core Vision Urban, commercial, manufacturing hub; pro-British foreign policy; favored a National Bank. Agrarian republic of independent farmers; pro-French foreign policy; opposed the National Bank. John Adams’ Domestic and Foreign Policy – Naturalization Act, Alien and Sedition Acts, XYZ Affair XYZ Affair (1797): French privateers began seizing American merchant ships. Adams sent diplomats to Paris, where three French agents (dubbed X, Y, and Z) demanded massive bribes before negotiating. This sparked anti-French outrage across America and triggered the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war. Naturalization Act (1798): Increased the residency requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years. This was designed to target French and Irish immigrants, who heavily voted Democratic-Republican. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Alien Act: Authorized the president to deport any non-citizen deemed dangerous to national peace. Sedition Act: Made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. Adams used it to jail Democratic-Republican newspaper editors. Marbury v. Madison, McCullough v. Maryland Marbury v. Madison (1803): Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 conflicted with the Constitution. This established the doctrine of Judicial Review, cementing the Supreme Court's power to declare federal laws unconstitutional. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States. The Marshall Court ruled that: The Bank was constitutional via the Implied Powers of the Necessary and Proper Clause. States cannot tax federal institutions ("the power to tax involves the power to destroy"), reaffirming Federal Supremacy. Short Answer: (These are all straight from google overview, just as an fyi) a) Explain the concerns for the nation Washington expressed in his Farewell Address and how they became issues during and immediately following his terms in office. In his 1796 Farewell Address, George Washington explicitly warned the young nation against two main existential threats: the rise of factions (political parties) and entering into permanent foreign alliances. Despite his warnings, both issues immediately fractured the nation during and after his presidency. Domestically, the fierce ideological rift between Alexander Hamilton’s Federalists and Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans hardened into America’s first permanent political party system. Externally, the ongoing geopolitical conflict of the French Revolution forced America to take sides. While Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation in 1793, foreign entanglements escalated under John Adams, whose administration was consumed by the XYZ Affair and the resulting Quasi-War with France. b) Evaluate the issues associated with Adams’ Alien and Sedition Acts. The primary constitutional and political issue of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 was their weaponization for partisan suppression, which directly violated civil liberties. The Sedition Act explicitly restricted freedom of speech and the press by criminalizing criticism of the federal government, drawing widespread condemnation for violating the First Amendment. Furthermore, Federalists utilized these acts to aggressively target their political opponents, arresting Democratic-Republican editors who criticized Adams’ anti-French foreign policies. In response to this perceived federal tyranny, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison anonymously penned the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. These documents introduced the radical constitutional theory of nullification, arguing that sovereign states had the right to declare federal laws null and void within their borders, setting a dangerous precedent for future states' rights crises. LEQ – Be able to analyze the 4 areas of concern presented at the Constitutional Convention, including the arguments made by Federalists and Anti-Federalists, as well as the agreements reached that were included in the Constitution. Thesis Statement: Although delegates at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 originally gathered to revise the weak Articles of Confederation, deep regional divides over representation, state power, and economic structure forced intense debates between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Ultimately, the framework of the new Constitution succeeded because delegates forged pragmatic compromises over congressional representation, executive authority, the preservation of slavery, and federal taxes. Area of Concern 1: Congressional Representation (Large vs. Small States) Debate: Large states favored the Virginia Plan (proportional representation based on population); small states demanded the New Jersey Plan (equal representation per state). Agreement: The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) established a bicameral legislature. The House of Representatives based representation on population, while the Senate granted two seats per state. Area of Concern 2: Counting the Population (Northern vs. Southern States) Debate: Southern states demanded enslaved individuals be counted to boost their legislative seat totals but excluded for federal tax purposes. Northern states argued this was unjust since enslaved populations lacked civil rights. Agreement: The Three-Fifths Compromise dictated that three out of every five enslaved individuals would be counted for both representation and taxation. Area of Concern 3: Executive Branch Power Debate: Anti-Federalists feared a strong executive would morph into a monarchy. Federalists argued a strong executive was vital to enforce laws and avoid the chaos seen in Shays’ Rebellion. Agreement: The creation of a single executive (the President) checked by congressional override powers, impeachment processes, and elected indirectly via the Electoral College. Area of Concern 4: Central Power vs. Individual Rights (The Ratification Pivot) Debate: Anti-Federalists refused to ratify the document because it centralized immense power under the Supremacy Clause without explicitly protecting individual liberties. Federalists argued that separation of powers inherently protected individuals. Agreement: Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights immediately upon ratification, which James Madison drafted during the First Congress to safeguard civil liberties against federal overreach.

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🇺🇸 APUSH CRAM SHEET PERIOD 1: 1491–1607 — Native America & Exploration Native American Societies * Iroquois Confederacy → political alliance of Native nations * Pueblo peoples → Southwest; agriculture, irrigation * Mississippian societies → Cahokia; agriculture and complex societies Columbian Exchange Americas → Europe * Corn * Potatoes * Tomatoes * Tobacco * Cacao Europe/Africa → Americas * Horses * Cattle * Sugar * Wheat * Diseases ⚠️ Major consequence: Native populations dramatically declined because of European diseases. Exploration * Christopher Columbus (1492) → opened sustained European contact * Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) → Spain/Portugal divided claims in the Americas * Encomienda System → Spanish forced Native labor ⸻ PERIOD 2: 1607–1754 — Colonies Jamestown — 1607 * First permanent English settlement * Virginia Company * John Smith → helped colony survive * Tobacco → major cash crop * John Rolfe → tobacco cultivation Important Virginia Developments * House of Burgesses (1619) → representative government * Headright System → encouraged immigration by giving land * Growth of slavery Plymouth & Massachusetts * Pilgrims → Plymouth, 1620 * Mayflower Compact → self-government * Puritans → Massachusetts Bay * John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Religion Puritans: wanted to reform the Church of England Quakers: * Religious tolerance * Equality * Pennsylvania * William Penn Bacon’s Rebellion — 1676 * Nathaniel Bacon led frontier farmers against Virginia government * Showed conflict between wealthy elites and poorer colonists * Contributed to increased reliance on enslaved labor Colonial Economies New England * Fishing * Shipbuilding * Trade * Small farms Middle Colonies * Grain * Trade * Diverse population Southern Colonies * Tobacco * Rice * Indigo * Plantation agriculture * Slavery ⸻ PERIOD 3: 1754–1800 — Revolution & Constitution French & Indian War — 1754–1763 Britain vs. France + Native allies Consequences * Britain wins * Britain gains territory * Britain has massive debt * Britain begins taxing colonies Proclamation of 1763 * Colonists prohibited from settling west of Appalachian Mountains * Angered colonists ⸻ Road to Revolution Tax Acts Stamp Act (1765) * Tax on printed materials * “No taxation without representation” Townshend Acts (1767) * Taxes on imports * Led to colonial resistance Boston Massacre (1770) * British soldiers killed colonists * Patriot propaganda Boston Tea Party (1773) * Colonists protested Tea Act Intolerable Acts (1774) * Punished Massachusetts * Helped unite colonies ⸻ Declaration of Independence — 1776 Thomas Jefferson Main ideas: * Natural rights * Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness * Government gets power from the people * People can overthrow an abusive government ⸻ Revolutionary War Turning Points Saratoga (1777) → Major American victory → France joins American side Yorktown (1781) → Cornwallis surrendered → Major fighting effectively ended Treaty of Paris (1783) → Britain recognized U.S. independence ⸻ Articles of Confederation Strengths * Won Revolutionary War * Land Ordinance of 1785 * Northwest Ordinance of 1787 Weaknesses * No power to tax * No executive branch * No national court system * Weak central government ⸻ Constitution Great Compromise * House of Representatives → population * Senate → equal representation 3/5 Compromise * Enslaved people counted as 3/5 for representation and taxation Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists Federalists * Strong national government * Hamilton * Madison * Jay Anti-Federalists * Feared centralized power * Wanted Bill of Rights Bill of Rights — 1791 First 10 amendments ⸻ PERIOD 4: 1800–1848 — Expansion & Democracy Jefferson Election of 1800 * Peaceful transfer of power * Jefferson becomes president Louisiana Purchase — 1803 * Bought from France * Doubled U.S. territory Lewis & Clark * Explored western territory ⸻ War of 1812 Causes: * British impressment * British interference with trade * British support for Native resistance Effects * Increased nationalism * Weakened Federalist Party * Encouraged American manufacturing ⸻ Market Revolution Transportation * Canals * Roads * Railroads * Steamboats Industrialization * Factories grew * Wage labor expanded * Cities grew Erie Canal → connected Great Lakes to Hudson River ⸻ Jacksonian Democracy Andrew Jackson * Expanded voting for white men * Spoils system * Popular democracy Indian Removal Act — 1830 * Forced Native Americans west * Trail of Tears * Major example of U.S. expansion and Native displacement Bank War Jackson opposed the national bank. ⸻ Manifest Destiny Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America. Texas * Texas declared independence from Mexico * Alamo * Texas becomes U.S. state in 1845 Mexican-American War — 1846–1848 U.S. victory → Mexican Cession Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo * U.S. gained California, New Mexico and huge western territory ⸻ PERIOD 5: 1844–1877 — Civil War & Reconstruction Sectionalism North * Industry * Free labor * Railroads * Growing cities South * Plantation economy * Cotton * Slavery West * Competition over whether slavery would expand ⸻ Slavery Cotton Gin * Eli Whitney * Made cotton processing faster * Increased demand for enslaved labor Missouri Compromise — 1820 * Missouri → slave * Maine → free * 36°30′ line Compromise of 1850 * California → free * Popular sovereignty in Utah/New Mexico * Fugitive Slave Act strengthened Kansas-Nebraska Act — 1854 * Popular sovereignty * Repealed Missouri Compromise * Led to Bleeding Kansas Dred Scott v. Sandford — 1857 Supreme Court ruled: * African Americans were not citizens * Congress couldn’t prohibit slavery in territories Lincoln-Douglas Debates Major issue → slavery’s expansion ⸻ Civil War Election of 1860 Abraham Lincoln wins Southern states secede. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863 * Freed enslaved people in rebelling states * Changed war aims toward ending slavery Gettysburg — 1863 Major Union victory Gettysburg Address * Equality * Democracy * “new birth of freedom” Appomattox — 1865 Lee surrendered to Grant. ⸻ Reconstruction — 1865–1877 13th Amendment Abolished slavery 14th Amendment Citizenship + equal protection 15th Amendment Voting rights for Black men Freedmen’s Bureau * Helped formerly enslaved people * Education * Employment * Food/housing assistance Black Codes Southern laws restricting African Americans after the Civil War. Ku Klux Klan Used violence and intimidation to suppress Black political participation. Compromise of 1877 * Ended disputed 1876 election * Federal troops withdrawn from South * Reconstruction effectively ended ⚠️ APUSH connection: Reconstruction achieved major constitutional changes but failed to permanently protect many of those gains. ⸻ PERIOD 6: 1865–1898 — Gilded Age Industrialization Important Industrialists * Andrew Carnegie → steel * John D. Rockefeller → oil * J.P. Morgan → banking/finance Robber Barons vs. Captains of Industry Robber Baron → exploited workers, monopolies Captain of Industry → created jobs/industry and sometimes philanthropy Social Darwinism Applied survival-of-the-fittest ideas to society/economics. ⸻ Labor Knights of Labor * Broad membership * Wanted better working conditions AFL * Samuel Gompers * Skilled workers * Higher wages * Shorter hours Major Strikes Haymarket Affair → labor unrest + anarchism Homestead Strike → Carnegie Steel Pullman Strike → railroad workers → federal government intervened ⸻ Immigration Old Immigration Mostly: * Northern/Western Europe New Immigration Mostly: * Southern/Eastern Europe * Italians * Poles * Russians Chinese Exclusion Act — 1882 Restricted Chinese immigration. ⸻ Urbanization Problems: * Tenements * Disease * Crime * Poor sanitation Political machines * Ex: Tammany Hall * Provided services in exchange for votes ⸻ PERIOD 7: 1890–1945 — Progressive Era & World Wars Progressivism Goals: * Reduce corruption * Regulate corporations * Improve working conditions * Consumer protection * Women’s suffrage Muckrakers Investigative journalists exposing problems. Upton Sinclair → The Jungle → exposed meatpacking conditions → helped inspire Meat Inspection Act & Pure Food and Drug Act Theodore Roosevelt Square Deal * Trust busting * Conservation * Consumer protection 16th Amendment → Federal income tax 17th Amendment → Direct election of senators 18th Amendment → Prohibition 19th Amendment → Women’s suffrage ⸻ Imperialism Spanish-American War — 1898 U.S. victory U.S. gains influence over: * Puerto Rico * Guam * Philippines Open Door Policy U.S. wanted equal trade access in China. Roosevelt Corollary U.S. claimed right to intervene in Latin America. ⸻ World War I Causes Think MAIN * Militarism * Alliance system * Imperialism * Nationalism U.S. enters in 1917. Wilson’s Fourteen Points * Self-determination * League of Nations * International cooperation Treaty of Versailles Senate rejected it. ⸻ 1920s Consumer Culture * Cars * Radios * Movies * Advertising Harlem Renaissance African American cultural movement. Important figures: * Langston Hughes * Zora Neale Hurston * Duke Ellington Great Migration African Americans moved from South → Northern/Western cities. ⸻ Great Depression Causes * Stock market speculation * Bank failures * Unequal wealth * Overproduction * Consumer debt FDR’s New Deal Relief → help people now Recovery → rebuild economy Reform → prevent future depression Important Programs CCC → jobs for young men WPA → public works/jobs Social Security Act → retirement assistance FDIC → protects bank deposits SEC → regulates stock market ⸻ World War II Pearl Harbor — 1941 Japan attacks U.S. U.S. enters WWII. Japanese American Internment Executive Order 9066 → forced relocation/internment D-Day — 1944 Allied invasion of Europe. Manhattan Project Developed atomic bomb. Hiroshima & Nagasaki Atomic bombs used against Japan. Japan surrenders → 1945 ⸻ PERIOD 8: 1945–1980 — Cold War & Civil Rights Cold War U.S. vs. USSR Capitalism vs. Communism Truman Doctrine Contain communism. Marshall Plan Economic aid to rebuild Europe. NATO Western military alliance. Korean War U.S. supports South Korea against communist North Korea. ⸻ Civil Rights Movement Brown v. Board — 1954 School segregation unconstitutional. Rosa Parks Montgomery Bus Boycott Martin Luther King Jr. * Nonviolent protest * Civil rights Civil Rights Act — 1964 Banned segregation/discrimination in many public settings. Voting Rights Act — 1965 Protected voting rights. Malcolm X Initially promoted Black nationalism/self-defense; later shifted views toward broader cooperation. ⸻ Vietnam War Domino Theory If one country becomes communist, nearby countries may follow. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Expanded presidential power in Vietnam. Vietnamization Nixon’s policy of reducing U.S. troops while South Vietnam took more responsibility. Effects * Antiwar movement * Distrust of government * War Powers Act ⸻ PERIOD 9: 1980–Present Reagan Reaganomics Tax cuts + deregulation + reduced government spending Conservative Movement * Lower taxes * Smaller government * Anti-communism * Traditional social values Cold War Ends 1989 → Berlin Wall falls 1991 → USSR collapses ⸻ ⭐ MUST-KNOW APUSH THEMES 1. Federal Power Articles → weak government ↓ Constitution → stronger government ↓ Civil War → massive federal expansion ↓ New Deal → federal government expands economically ↓ Great Society → federal government expands social programs ⸻ 2. Race Colonial slavery ↓ Expansion of slavery ↓ Civil War ↓ 13th/14th/15th Amendments ↓ Jim Crow ↓ Civil Rights Movement ↓ Civil Rights Act + Voting Rights Act ⸻ 3. Expansion Louisiana Purchase ↓ Manifest Destiny ↓ Mexican-American War ↓ Westward expansion ↓ Imperialism ↓ Overseas influence ⸻ 4. Economy Agricultural colonies ↓ Market Revolution ↓ Industrial Revolution ↓ Gilded Age corporations ↓ Great Depression ↓ New Deal ↓ Modern consumer economy ⸻ 🔥 20 EVENTS YOU ABSOLUTELY NEED TO KNOW Date Event 1492 Columbus 1607 Jamestown 1620 Plymouth 1754–63 French & Indian War 1776 Declaration of Independence 1781 Articles/ Yorktown 1787 Constitution 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1812 War of 1812 1820 Missouri Compromise 1830 Indian Removal Act 1846–48 Mexican-American War 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act 1861–65 Civil War 1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1865 13th Amendment 1898 Spanish-American War 1929 Great Depression begins 1941 Pearl Harbor 1954 Brown v. Board 1964 Civil Rights Act 1965 Voting Rights Act 🧠 APUSH Essay Formula For LEQs/DBQs, remember: Claim → Evidence → Explain → Connect Don’t just say what happened. Instead: Evidence: The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise. Analysis: This increased sectional tensions because it allowed slavery to potentially expand into territories previously closed to it, contributing to the breakdown of political compromise before the Civil War. APUSH loves CAUSATION, CHANGE/CONTINUITY, and COMPARISON. Ask yourself: * Why did this happen? * What did it cause? * What changed? * What stayed the same? * Who benefited? * Who was harmed? * How does this connect to another period

Pennsylvania Permit Test Flash Cards

Pennsylvaina Adventures in Time and Place: Unit 1, Lesson 2 Vocabulary