St. Paul University Philippines History, Seal, and Core Values

[Music] [Music] this is the story of the greatest scientific discovery ever the discovery that everything is made of atoms the vast variety and richness of everything we see around us in the world and beyond how it's built up how it all fits together is all down to atoms and the mysterious laws they obey as scientists delve deep into the atom it's the very part of matter they unraveled nature's most shocking secrets they had to abandon everything they believed in and create a whole new science a science that today underpins the whole of physics chemistry biology and maybe even life itself but for me the story of how humanity solved the mystery of the atom is both inspiring and remarkable it's a story of great geniuses of men and women driven by their thirst for knowledge and glory it's a story of false starts and conflicts of ambition and revelation a story that leads us through some of the most exciting and exhilarating ideas ever conceived of by the human race and for a working physicist like me it's the most important story there is [Music] [Music] on the 5th of October 1906 in a hotel room near Trieste a German science is called Ludwig Boltzmann hanged himself Boltzmann had a long history of psychological problems and one of the key factors in his depression was that he'd been vilified even ostracized for believing something that today we take for granted he believed that matter cannot be infinitely divisible into ever smaller pieces instead he argued that ultimately everything is made of basic building blocks atoms it seems incredible now that Boltzmann's revelation was so controversial but a hundred years ago arguing atoms were real was considered by most to be a waste of time although philosophers since the Greeks had speculated that the world might be made out of some kind of basic unit of matter they realized that they were far too small to see even under the most powerful microscopes speculating about them was therefore a complete waste of time but then in the middle of the 19th century whether or not the atom was real was suddenly a question of burning importance the reason was this steam by the 1850s it was changing the world it powered the mighty engines the trains the ships the factories of the Industrial Revolution so figuring out how to use it more effectively became a matter of crucial commercial political and military significance not surprisingly then it became the key question of 1965 [Music] the demand to build more powerful and efficient steam engines in turn created an urgent need to understand and predict the behavior of water and steam at high temperatures and pressures not the alts Minh and his scientific allies showed that if you imagine steam is made of millions of tiny rigid spheres atoms then you can create some powerful mathematical equations and those equations are capable of predicting the behavior esteemed with incredible accuracy but these same equations plunge Boltzmann and his fellow atomists into controversy their enemies argued that since the atoms referred to in their calculations were invisible they were merely a mathematical convenience rather than real physical objects to claim that imaginary entities were real seem presumptuous even blasphemous you see boss most critics argued that it was sacrilegious to reduce God's miraculous creation down to a series of collisions between tiny inanimate spheres Boltzmann was condemned as an irreligious materialist the tragic irony of Boltzmann's story is that when he took his own life in 1906 he was unaware that he'd been vindicated you see a year before he died a young scientist had published a paper which undeniably irrefutable proclaimed the reality of the atom you might have heard of this young scientist his name was Albert Einstein in 1905 the year before Boltzmann suicide Albert Einstein was 26 years old his brash arrogance had upset most of his professors and teachers and he was barely employable then he got his girlfriend pregnant that was followed by a hasty marriage he needed a job any job having not quite distinguished himself a university he took up a job as a patent clerk here in bern in switzerland he'd moved into the small one-bedroom Apartments on cram gasser with his young wife from a laborer despite dire personal straits the young Einstein had a burning ambition he was desperate to make his mark as a physicist and in 1905 during one miraculous year the mark he made was truly incredible having an undemanding job meant that young einstein had plenty of time on his hands both at work and here in his tiny apartment to think deep thoughts in the space of just a few months he was to publish several papers that would change science forever now everyone's heard of his theory of relativity even if they don't understand it and his paper on the nature of light was to win him the Nobel Prize a few years later but ironically it wasn't either of these two papers that had the most impact on the discovery of atoms the one that made all the difference was a short paper on how tiny grains of pollen danced in water almost 80 years earlier in 1827 a Scottish botanist called Robert Brown sprinkled pollen grains in some water and examined it through a microscope what he found was really strange because instead of the pollen grains floating gently in the water they danced around furiously almost as though they were alive now while this so called Brownian motion was strange scientists soon forgot about it they found it mundane even boring I mean who cared if the pollen giggled about in the water and what had the jiggling to do with atoms anyway for nearly 80 years brown's discovery remained a little-known scientific anomaly then Einstein changed everything in one staggering insight I Stein saw that Brownian motion was all about atoms in fact he realized that the jiggling of pollen grains in water could settle the raging debate about the reality of atoms forever his argument was simple the pollen will only jiggle if they were being jostled by something else so I said that the water must be made of tiny atoms like particles which themselves are jiggling and are continually buffeting the pollen if there were no atoms then the pollen would stay still so Boltzmann and his contemporaries had been rowing furiously about this question for nothing the answer was there all along Einstein proved that for Brownian motion to happen atoms must exist Einstein später went way beyond just verbal arguments with flawless mathematics he proved that the dance of the pollen revealed the size of the atom and it's mind-numbing ly tiny 1/10 of a millionth of a millimeter across a single human hair itself one of the narrowest things visible to the naked eye is over a million atoms wide let me put it another way there are more atoms in a single glass of water than there are glasses of water in all the oceans of the world sort of hurts your head just to think about it Einstein's paper ended the debate about whether the atom was real or not and Boltzmann had been totally vindicated the atom had to be real [Music] [Music] by the early years of the 20th century the atom had arrived scientists we'd argued that the atom was real were no longer heretics in a dramatic sudden reversal they became the new orthodoxy but they were to pay a huge price for their success before that even had a chance to congratulate each other on discovering the atom it ripped the rug out from under their feet and sent them spiraling into a bizarre and at times terrifying new world and it all kicked off here in what by 1910 was the world center for atomic physics Manchester two of the most extraordinary men in the history of science worked here in the physics departments of Manchester University between 1911 and 1916 they were Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr on the face of it two very different personalities and the unlikeliest of collaborators Rutherford was from a remote part of New Zealand and grew up on a farm Bohr was born in Copenhagen wealthy and erudite virtually an aristocrat Rutherford was the ultimate experimentalist he loved technology and ingenious arrangements of batteries coils magnets and radioactive rocks but he was also blessed with a profound intuition in contrast war was the ultimate theoretician to him science was about deep thought and abstract mathematics pen and paper chalk and blackboard were his tools logic was his path to truth although their approaches to their work couldn't have been any more different they had one thing in common they were prepared to ditch three centuries of scientific convention if it didn't fit what they believed to be true they were genuine revolutionaries Rutherford and Bohr were two of the most extraordinary minds ever produced by the human race but it would take every bit of their dogged tenacity and inspirational brilliance to take on the atom in 1907 ernest rutherford took over the physics departments in manchester this was a period of momentous scientific change just over ten years earlier in germany came the first demonstration of weird rays that see through flesh to reveal our bones these rays were so inexplicable scientists didn't know what to call them so they were named x-rays and a couple of years after that in Cambridge it was shown that powerful electric currents could produce strange streams of tiny glowing charged particles that were called electrons and in 1896 in Paris came the most significant discovery of all one that more than any other would unlock the secrets of the atom the metal uranium was shown to emit a strange and powerful energy that was named radioactivity it seemed straight out of science fiction radioactive metals were warm to touch they could even burn the skin and the rays could pass through solid matter as if it wasn't there it truly was a marvel of the modern age Rutherford was obsessed with radioactivity all sorts of questions plagued him how has it made why did it come in different forms how far could it travel through a vacuum or through air did it alter the materials that are encountered in Manchester together with his assistants hands Geiger of Geiger counter fame and Ernest Marsden he devised a series of experiments that would probe the Enigma of radioactivity 1909 Manchester University these are the props goldleaf Beaton said it's just a few atoms thick a movable phosphorescent screen that flashed when struck by radioactive rays and inside this box is the star attraction a tiny piece of the metal radium radium is an extraordinarily powerful source of a kind of radioactivity the Rutherford had named alpha rays they weren't really rays they were more like a steady stream of particles and radium spat up these particles like a machine gun that never ran out of bullets Rutherford set his students a simple enough task use the radium gun shoot the alpha radioactivity at the gold leaf and with the phosphorescent plate count the number of particles that come out the other side in practice that meant sitting alone in the dark and counting tiny almost invisible flashes on the phosphorescent screen it was deeply tedious but Rutherford insisted that they keep at it weeks passed and the team of researchers found nothing unusual the alpha particles seemed to punch through the gold almost as though it wasn't there very occasionally they would swerve slightly as they went through hardly front-page news now comes what must be the most consequential off-the-cuff remark in the history of science one that changed the world the story goes that Rutherford bumps into his assistant Geiger in the corridor outside the lab Geiger reported that so far they've seen nothing unusual now in response Rutherford could have easily just nodded and walked on but he didn't he later claimed that he said what he said at the time for the sheer hell of it but I don't believe him Rutherford had great scientific intuition and I think he had a hunch that something was about to happen here's what he said to Geiger tell young Marsden to go back and see if he can detect any alpha particles on the same side of the gold leaf as the radium source in other words see if any alpha particles are bouncing back now it's an extraordinary suggestion from Rutherford and one day he had no logical reason to make after all Geiger Marsden had spent weeks seeing alpha particles do nothing but streams straight through the gold leaf almost as though it wasn't there why would any bounce back the Geiger Marsden were young and in all the big New Zealand er they did their master's bidding and went back into their dark lab and watched patiently for days they saw absolutely nothing they strained their eyes to the points of myopia but didn't see a single alpha particle bouncing back off the gold it seemed that rather for suggestion really was a stupid one but then the impossible happened one afternoon in 1909 Geiger burst into Rutherford's office with some astonishing news very very occasionally an alpha particle would indeed ricochet back off the gold leaf Geiger calculated that only 1 in 8,000 alpha particles would do this it's a tiny percentage but Rutherford's mind reeled with the news he would later say it was like firing a shell at a piece of tissue paper and have it bounce back at you there and then Rutherford knew he'd struck physics cold although it would take him over a year to fully understand why the alpha particles would do this when he did he would show humanity for the first time the inside of an atom now people had barely got used to the idea that atoms existed but now Rutherford knew that this my new world 1/10 of a millionth of a millimetre across had his own internal structure within the atomic there's a sub atomic world and Ernest Rutherford believed he knew what it looked like Rutherford realized that the bouncing alpha particle revealed an atom that was totally unexpected it had no familiar analogy on earth so Rutherford looked for one in the heavens he pictured the atom as a tiny solar system electrons tiny particles of negative electricity orbit around a minut positively charged object called the nucleus [Music] Rutherford calculated that the nucleus was 10,000 times smaller than the atom itself that's why only 1 in 8,000 alpha particles bounce back they're the ones that hit the Tony nucleus by chance the rest whizzed by without hitting anything the first astonishing consequence of this idea is that Rutherford's atom is almost entirely empty space that's why nearly all the alpha particles race through the gold atoms as if there's nothing there there really is nothing there consider the bizarre implications of Rutherford's atom by imagining it on a bigger scale if the nucleus were the size of a football then the nearest electron will be an orbit half a mile away the rest of the atom will be completely empty space let me explain another way if you were to suck out all the empty space from every atom in my body then I would shrink down to a size smaller than a grain of salt of course I'd still weigh the same and if you did the same thing to the entire human race then all 6 billion of us would fit inside a single Apple the atom was unlike anything we had ever encountered before and it would only get stranger and stranger almost immediately a problem surfaced and it was a big one according to the tried and trusted science of the time the electrons should lose their energy run out of speed and spiral into the nucleus in less than a blink of an eye Rutherford's atom contradicted the known laws of science the atom didn't care that it defied scientific convention it's almost entirely empty space and it's gonna stay that way I show no signs of shrinking down to the size of a grain of salt and the earth is well the size of the earth it's not getting smaller not surprisingly all the established scientists of the day including Einstein were battled scientific ideas they put their faith in all their lives had failed completely to explain the atom the atom now required a new generation of scientists to follow in Rutherford's footsteps bold brilliant and above all young it was crucial they had no loyalty or attachment to ideas held by previous generations one of the first of this new breed was niels bohr he sailed from Denmark in 1911 and made his way it's English soil having finished his studies in Copenhagen war decided to move abroad and be at the center of the new physics the trail led you to britain manchester university ernest rutherford or made it his mission to solve the puzzles of why the atom didn't collapse and why there was so much empty space as one of the new breed of theoretical physicists he was fearless in his thinking and was prepared to abandon common sense and human intuition to find an explanation so in a leap of genius he started to look for clues about the atoms structure not by looking at matter but by examining the mysterious and wonderful nature of light our atoms and lights are clearly connected most substances glow when they're heated and for centuries people had realized that different substances glow with their own distinctive colors a bit like a signature so the green of copper the yellow of sodium and the red of lithium these colors associated with different substances are called spectra and Bohr's great insights was to realize that spectra are telling us something about the inner structure of the atom that they could explain all that empty space Bohr's idea was to take Rutherford's solar system model of the atom and replace it with something that's almost impossible to imagine or visualize so sensible ideas like empty space and particles moving around in orbits fade away and they're replaced with something that is one of the most misunderstood and misused concepts in the whole of science the quantum jump now it takes most working physicists many years to come to terms with quantum jumps and in fact or himself said that if you think you've understood it then you haven't really thought about it enough so I'm going to take a deep breath and under 30 seconds try and explain to you one of the most complicated concepts in the whole of science but one that underpins the entire universe Bohr described the atom not as a solar system but as a multi-story building the ground floors where the nucleus lives were the electrons occupying the floors above mysterious laws mean the electrons can only live on the floors never in between and other mysterious laws mean that sometimes that can instantaneously jump from one film to another these are what we call quantum jumps now Bohr had absolutely no idea what these laws were but thinking like this allowed him to make a startling prediction when an electron jumps from a higher floor to a lower one it gives off light more significantly the color of the light depends on how big or small the quantum jump the electron makes so an electron jumping from the third floor to the second floor might give off red light when an electron jumping from the tenth floor to the second floor blue light to test his new theory Bohr used it to make a prediction could it explain the mysterious signature in the spectrum of hydrogen after months of calculating furiously who finally came up with the results and his prediction was surprisingly accurate for the first time ever it looked like the spectrum can be explained back in 1913 that was big news but Bohr's new idea rested on a single seriously controversial supposition why should the electrons in the atom behave as though they were in a multi-story building and why should they magically perform quantum jumps from one story to another there was no precedent for it anywhere else in science when one physicists claimed the jumps were nonsense Moore replied yes you're completely right but that doesn't prove the jumps don't happen only that you cannot visualize them but not being able to visualize things seem to go against the whole purpose of science all the scientists in particular felt that science was supposed to be about understanding the world not about making up arbitrary rules that seemed to fit the data conflict between the two generations of scientists was inevitable cause weird new Adam and his crazy quantum jumps were a shot across the bow silence and the old school reacted and leading the traditionalists was giant of the physics world Albert Einstein he hated all his ideas and he was going to fight them anything from a sexual assault on Nats [Music] borther is undeterred and as the 1920s gone the battery needs for one of the greatest conflicts in all science Woodlawn so far the debates about the new atomic physics had been polite from gentlemen now the two sides wheeled out their biggest guns two of the greatest names in physics they were two very true trusting characters on those dicho for the new revolutionary science was a buttoned-up uber competitive German called Verner Heisenberg for the Conservatives as a debonair byron esque Austrian called Owen Schrodinger [Music] [Applause] Oh in Schrodinger passionate and poetic a philosopher and a romantic he wrote books on the ancient Greeks on philosophy on religion he was influenced by Hinduism there's also a very flamboyant character cool suave sophisticated a dapper dresser and a big hit with the ladies [Music] [Applause] schrödinger's promiscuity was legendary he had a string of girlfriends throughout his married life some of them much younger than him in 1925 38 year-old Schrodinger stayed at the Alpine resort of yoson Switzerland for a secret liaison with an old girlfriend whose identity remains a mystery to this day but their passion proved to be the catalyst but Schrodinger's creative genius another physicist said of Schrodinger's week of sexually inspired physics he had two tasks that week satisfy a woman and solved the riddle of the atom fortunately he was up to both he took de Bru's idea of mysterious pilot waves guiding electrons around an atom one crucial step further he argued that the electron actually was a wave of energy vibrating so fast it looked like a cloud around the atom a cloud like wave of pure energy and what's more he came up with a powerful new equation which completely described this way and so described the whole atom in terms of traditional physics the equation he came up with we now call schrödinger's wave equation it's incredibly powerful what's unique about it is that it features a new quantity called the wave function which Schrodinger claimed completely describe the behavior on the subatomic world [Music] Schrodinger's equation and the picture of the Atome painted created during a sexually charged holiday in the Swiss Alps once again allowed scientists to visualize the atom in simple terms it's hard to overestimate the relief Schrodinger's idea brought to the traditional physics community strange though his picture of the Aten was at least it was a picture and scientists love pictures they allowed them to use their intuition but there was still a deep nagging problem one that the radicals felt Schrodinger just couldn't reconcile his new theory still couldn't account for balls strange instantaneous quantum jumps the time had come for the radicals to hit back [Applause] in the summer of the same year one of Niels Bohr's protegees Verner Heisenberg was travelling to an obscure island of the north coast of Germany he was fiercely competitive and took Schrodinger's ideas as a personal affront he felt strongly that the strangeness of the instant quantum jumps was actually the key to understanding the atom he thought the atom was so unique and unusual it shouldn't be compromised through a simple analogy like a wave or an orbit or even a multi-story building he believed it was time to give up any picture of the atom at all Verner Heisenberg while the true geniuses of the 20th century young athletic a great mountain climber an excellent pianist he was also an exceptional student at the age of just 20 who was well on his way to finishing his ph.d and being courted by the great universities across Europe now in the summer of 1925 he was suffering from a particularly bad bout of hay fever his face was swollen up almost beyond recognition he decided to escape alone here to this beautiful but isolated island of helgeland he walked along the beaches he swam he climbed the rock and he pondered ever since he'd encountered atomic physics Heisenberg felt in his bones that all human attempts to visualize the atom to model it with familiar images would always fail the atom he believed was too capricious too strange to ever be explained that simply so he decided to abandon all pictures of it and describe it using pure mathematics alone but as he pondered he realized that the atom didn't just defy visualization it even defied traditional mathematics it was while he was here on helgeland the Heisenberg had an incredible revelation he realized that in order to describe certain properties of atoms he had to use a strange new type of mathematics it seems that certain properties like where an electron is at a given time and how fast it's moving where multiplied together the order in which you multiply there matters let me try and explain if we multiply two numbers together it doesn't matter which or do we do it in so 3 times 4 is clearly the same as 4 times 3 but when it came to atoms Heisenberg realized that the order in which he multiplied quantities together gave a different answer this quickly led him to other discoveries and he was convinced that he'd cracked a code in the atom that he'd somehow found the hidden mathematics within he was so excited he was also very scared that night he climbed to the top of a rock and sat there waiting till dawn he called it his night of helgeland when he returned to his University in getting and he told his colleague Max Born about it and they then worked together intensely for several months developing a whole new theory of the atom a theory that today we call matrix mechanics [Music] matrix mechanics uses complex arrays of numbers rather like a spreadsheet by manipulating these arrays Heisenberg and his mentor the brilliant physicist max all could accurately predict atomic behavior but from Einstein and the traditionalists this was pure scientific heresy an atom can't actually be a matrix of numbers surely we made of atoms not numbers back in Copenhagen Bohr and Paulie were thrilled with matrix mechanics so what if we couldn't imagine the atom as a physical object they exalted in the purity of the mathematics and launched into vicious attacks against Schrodinger's vulgar sensual waves Heisenberg wrote the more I reflect on the physical portion of Schrodinger's equation the more disgusting I find it in fact it's just [ __ ] but Schrodinger was equally scathing of Heisenberg saying he was repelled by his methods and found his mathematics monstrous in Munich in 1926 their enmity began to reach boiling points Schrodinger was to give a lecture on his wave equation Heisenberg scraped together the money to travel down to Munich for the lecture to finally come face to face with his rival what was at stake was more than just Heisenberg's reputation he believed Schrodinger's simplistic approach wasn't just misguided but totally wrong and his intention was nothing less than to destroy Schrodinger's theory Schrodinger delivers his lecture on the new wave mechanics to a packed audience the standing-room-only he writes down his new wave equation to Schrodinger this describes a real physical picture of the atom with electrons as waves surrounding the atomic nucleus 24-year old Verna Heisenberg is in the audience it can hardly contain himself at the end of the lecture he stands up and delivers a monologue attacking Schrodinger's approach for Heisenberg it's impossible to ever have a picture of what the atom is really like the audience is on Schrodinger side they'd much prefer his simple physical interpretation to Heisenberg's abstract complicated mathematics Heisenberg is booed he's told to sit down and be quiet he leaves the lecture sad and depressed Heisenberg returned to Copenhagen with his confidence severely dented there at the Institute he and Bohr reached their darkest moment almost all of the scientific community was against them they felt isolated desperate their backs were against the wall despite this they stubbornly refused to give up their controversial theory this attic room was Heisenberg study back in 1926 Bohr would come up here night after night we're here in Heisenberg would argue about the meaning of the new quantum mechanics they would argue so passionately but on one occasion apparently Heisenberg was reduced to tears and then as Heisenberg stared out of his attic window in despair the part below an extraordinary thought occurred to him it struck him why an atom can't be visualized why can't be understood intuitively it's not just because it's tiny tricky and difficult is because it's inherently unknowable he realized that there was a fundamental limit to how much we can know about the subatomic world for instance if we know where an electron is at a particular moment in time then we cannot know how fast it's moving but if we knew its speed we wouldn't know his position this ambiguity isn't a shortcoming in the theory itself nor was it due to the clumsiness of the way we carry out our measurements but a fundamental truth about the way nature behaves at the subatomic scale it became known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and is probably the most profound incredible yet unsettling concepts in the whole of science [Music] what Heisenberg had uncovered through his abstract matrix mechanics was a deep and shocking truth about the atomic world atoms are willfully obscure we can never fully know an atoms position and speed simultaneously the atomic world just refuses to allow that to happen it was completely mind-boggling but once they accepted it Heisenberg and Bohr who found the boost of confidence to be even more bold they realized uncertainty forced them to put a paradox right at the very heart of the atom atoms are not just unimaginable they're self-contradictory they behave both like particles and waves and it gets weirder when you're not looking at an atom it behaved like a spread-out wave but when you look to see where it is it behaves like a particle this is insane first atoms couldn't be visualized at all now it seems they change completely in character depending on whether or not you're looking at them the uncertainty principle had changed everything it revealed a shocking contradiction at the heart of nature everything we see is made of atoms and yet atoms themselves are unknowable they can only be understood through mathematics for the first time for Bohr and Heisenberg everything about the atom fell into place by the autumn of 1927 full of confidence and smarting for a fight they knew they were finally ready to take on the Conservatives [Music] for this physics showdown they chose the Solvay conference in Brussels all the world's leading atomic physicists would attend if war and Heisenberg was successful then they would lead a total scientific revolution this is amazing I'm looking at original footage of the Solvay delegates coming out of these doors there's Bohr talking to Schrodinger and and this Heisenberg behind them and there's Paolo Li strange looking guy on there's Einstein coming down with a big smile on his face for the week of the conference all that the delegates could think and talk about was Bohr's quantum mechanics with uncertainty now a central plank it was a truly formidable theory and over the week the final showdown played out between Bohr and his archrival Albert Einstein Einstein hated quantum mechanics and every morning he'd come to war with an argument that he felt picked a hole in the new theory war would go away very disturbed and think very hard about it and by the end of the day he'd come back with a counter argument that dismissed Einstein's criticism and this happened day after day until by the end of the conference Bohr had brushed aside all of Einstein's criticisms and Bohr was regarded as having been victorious and with that his vision play-actor which became known as the Copenhagen interpretation was suddenly at the very heart of atomic physics at the end of the conference they all gather for the team photo never before or since have so many great names of physics being together in one place at the front the elder statesmen of physics Hendrik Lorentz flanked on either side by Madame Curie and Albert Einstein Einsteins looking rather glum because he's lost the argument Louis debris has also failed to convince the delegates of his views victory goes to Niels Bohr he's feeling very pleased with himself next to him one of the unsung heroes of quantum mechanics the German Max Born who developed so much of the mathematics and behind them the two young disciples of Bohr Heisenberg and Pauli Poly's looking rather smugly across at Schrodinger bit like the cat who's got the milk this was the moment in physics when it all changed the old guard was replaced by the new chance of probability became interwoven into the fabric of nature itself and we could no longer describe atoms in terms of simple pictures but only using pure abstract mathematics the Copenhagen view had been victorious although Einstein went to his grave never believed in quantum mechanics solve a 1927 was the turning point at which the rest of the science establishments came to embrace the Copenhagen interpretation and that interpretation is still accepted today all the physics that I use in my research certainly the quantum mechanics that I teach my students and that fills the textbooks on my shelves is based on ideas that were hammered out and crystallized here at the Solvay conference in October 1927 in a sense everything I know about the way the world around me is made up started here the quantum mechanical description of the atom is one of the crowning glories of human creativity over the last of 18 years it has been proven right time after time and it's Authority has never been in doubt it's a monumental scientific achievement between 1905 and 1927 science changed our view of the world it also changed our view of science itself as scientists probed the tiniest building blocks of matter they created the most successful and powerful theory ever quantum mechanics it allows us to describe what everything in the universe is made of how it interacts and how it all fits together but it comes at a huge price at its most fundamental level we have to accept that nature is ruled by chance and probability Heisenberg's uncertainty principle dictates that there are certain limits on the sorts of questions we can ask the atomic world and most crucially while we now know so much more about what an atom is and how it behaves we have to give up any possibility of imagining what it looks like our human nature has forced us to ask questions of everything we see around us in the world what we've discovered has been beyond our wildest imagination [Music]

Absolutely. Since this covers a lot of material, I’d turn it into a master study note with simple definitions, key ideas, and what you should remember for the exam. PHILOS 01 — Master Study Notes 1. Ideas of Philosophy Philosophy Philosophy means the love of wisdom. It is the study of big questions about reality, knowledge, morality, existence, and how we should live. Philosophy begins in wonder Philosophy begins when we become curious and ask “Why?” or “What is this?” instead of simply accepting things as they appear. Example: Instead of just seeing a tree, a philosopher might ask: • What does it mean for something to exist? • How do I know the tree is really there? • What makes something alive? Arguments An argument is reasoning used to support a conclusion. • Premises = reasons/evidence • Conclusion = what the argument is trying to prove Example: • Premise: All humans are mortal. • Premise: Socrates is human. • Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. 2. Fallacies of Reasoning A fallacy is a mistake in reasoning that makes an argument weak or misleading. Important idea A fallacy can sound convincing but still be logically wrong. When studying fallacies, ask: “Does the evidence actually support the conclusion?” 3. Branches of Philosophy Branch Main Question Logic How should we reason correctly? Epistemology What is knowledge? How do we know? Metaphysics What is reality/existence? Ethics What is right and wrong? How should we live? Aesthetics What is beauty/art? Social & Political Philosophy How should society and government work? Easy way to remember: Logic = reasoning Epistemology = knowledge Metaphysics = reality Ethics = morality Aesthetics = beauty Political philosophy = society/government 4. Socrates 5 Who was Socrates? Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who focused heavily on questioning people and examining their beliefs. He did not write books himself. Much of what we know about him comes from Plato's dialogues. The Delphic Oracle The Oracle at Delphi reportedly declared that no one was wiser than Socrates. Socrates questioned this because he believed he was not wise. He eventually realized that his wisdom came from recognizing his own ignorance. “One thing only I know, I know nothing.” This expresses Socratic humility. Socrates understood that recognizing what you do not know is an important form of wisdom. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates believed people should examine their beliefs, choices, and lives rather than simply going along with everyone else. Trial of Socrates Socrates was charged with: 1. Corrupting the youth 2. Not believing in the gods of Athens 3. Introducing new gods/deities He was found guilty and sentenced to death. Metaphors of Socrates Midwife • Socrates compared himself to a midwife. • A midwife helps someone give birth. • Socrates believed he helped people give birth to ideas through questioning. Gadfly • A gadfly is an insect that annoys or stings. • Socrates saw himself as someone who bothered Athens by challenging people to think. Stingray • A stingray can paralyze or numb someone. • Socrates' questioning could leave people confused and unsure of what they thought they knew. Remember Socrates: QUESTION EVERYTHING + EXAMINE YOUR LIFE + RECOGNIZE YOUR IGNORANCE 5. Plato 5 Plato was a student of Socrates. He wrote dialogues, many of which feature Socrates. Plato's Two Realms Physical realm The world we experience with our senses. Characteristics: • Time • Change/becoming • Physical objects • Opinion Metaphysical realm A higher, unchanging reality. Characteristics: • Eternity • Being • Forms • Knowledge Forms Forms are perfect, unchanging realities or concepts. Example: You can see many different chairs, but Plato would say there is a perfect Form of Chair that individual chairs imperfectly represent. 6. Allegory of the Cave The Allegory of the Cave explains the difference between appearance and reality. Imagine prisoners chained inside a cave. They can only see shadows on a wall and believe the shadows are reality. One prisoner escapes and discovers the outside world. What it means: Cave = ignorance Shadows = appearances/opinions Leaving cave = gaining knowledge Outside world = higher reality Sun = ultimate truth/the Good Main idea: People may mistake what they see or believe for reality. Education and philosophy can help people discover deeper truth. 7. Divided Line of Knowledge Plato divides understanding into levels. Lower levels: Images → Physical objects Higher levels: Mathematical reasoning → Forms The higher you move, the closer you get to genuine knowledge. Easy idea: Opinion → Reasoning → Knowledge 8. Aristotle 6 Aristotle was a student of Plato but disagreed with some of Plato's ideas. Universals A universal is a characteristic shared by many individual things. Example: Many different objects can be red. The individual objects are different, but redness is something they share. Third Man Argument This is an argument that challenges Plato's theory of Forms. If individual things and their Form are both “man,” then you may need another Form to explain what they have in common. This could continue forever. Basic idea: Plato's Forms may create an infinite regress. 9. Potentiality and Actuality Aristotle believed things have: Potentiality What something could become. Actuality What something is currently. Example: A seed has the potentiality to become a tree. A grown tree is the actuality of that potential. Remember: Potential = could be Actual = is 10. Aristotle's Four Causes Aristotle used four causes to explain why something exists or what explains it. 1. Material Cause What is it made of? Example: A statue is made of marble. 2. Formal Cause What is its form/design? Example: The shape of the statue. 3. Efficient Cause Who or what made it? Example: The sculptor. 4. Final Cause What is its purpose? Example: The statue was created as a memorial. Memory trick: Material = matter Formal = form Efficient = maker Final = purpose 11. Aristotle's Ethics Aristotle asked: How can human beings live a happy life? He believed happiness comes from living excellently and developing virtue. Eudaimonia Eudaimonia = human flourishing / living well It is more than temporary pleasure. It means living a good, meaningful, virtuous life. The Golden Mean Virtue is often found between two extremes. Deficiency ← Mean → Excess Example: Courage • Cowardice = deficiency • Courage = mean • Recklessness = excess Important: The mean is not always exactly halfway. It is the appropriate amount for the situation. Aristotle: Virtue = finding the appropriate mean between extremes. 12. Ten Categories of Aristotle Aristotle developed categories for describing what things are. Important categories include: • Substance • Quantity • Quality • Relation • Place • Time • Position • State • Action • Passion Most important: Substance = what something fundamentally is. 13. Hellenistic Philosophers After Aristotle, philosophy became strongly focused on: How should I live? Three important philosophers/traditions in your study guide are: • Epicurus • Epictetus • Plotinus 14. Epicurus 5 Epicurus believed pleasure is the greatest good, but he did not mean constant partying or luxury. For Epicurus, the best life is peaceful and free from unnecessary suffering. Goals: • Peace of mind • Health of the body • Avoid unnecessary pain • Avoid unnecessary fear Important: Not every pleasure should be chosen. Sometimes a pleasure can cause greater pain later. Example: Eating too much junk food might feel pleasurable now but make you feel sick later. Types of Pleasures Natural and necessary Things necessary for basic well-being. Examples: • Food • Water • Shelter Natural but unnecessary Pleasures that are natural but aren't required. Unnatural/unnecessary Desires that can become excessive. Examples: • Extreme wealth • Fame • Status Letter to Menoeceus Epicurus explains his philosophy of living a peaceful and happy life. Remember Epicurus: Good life = simple pleasures + peace of mind + little fear 15. Epictetus 5 Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher. Stoicism teaches that we should focus on what is within our control and accept what is outside our control. What is in our power? Things such as: • Our judgments • Our choices • Our reactions • Our attitudes What is beyond our power? Things such as: • Other people's actions • The past • Other people's opinions • Many external events Famous idea: “People are disturbed not by things but the views they take of things.” Meaning: The event itself isn't always what causes our emotional reaction. Our interpretation of the event matters. Another important quote: “Demand not that things happen as you wish…” Meaning: Don't demand that reality match exactly what you want. Instead, learn to accept reality and respond wisely. The Enchiridion The Enchiridion is a handbook/summary of Stoic teachings associated with Epictetus. Remember Epictetus: CONTROL WHAT YOU CAN + ACCEPT WHAT YOU CAN'T 16. Plotinus Plotinus developed Neoplatonism, which was influenced by Plato. The One At the center of Plotinus' philosophy is The One. The One is the ultimate source of reality. It is beyond ordinary description. Mystical Experience Plotinus believed people could experience a mystical union with The One. The Enneads Plotinus' philosophical writings are collecte in The Enneads. Remember: Plotinus = Neoplatonism + The One + mystical experience 17. Hypatia 4 Hypatia was a: • Neoplatonist philosopher • Astronomer • Mathematician • Teacher • Counselor She was a pagan and was murdered in Alexandria. Remember: Hypatia = philosopher + mathematician + astronomer + teacher 18. Metaphysics & Epistemology Metaphysics Studies reality and existence. Questions: • What exists? • What is reality? • What is the nature of being? Epistemology Studies knowledge. Questions: • What is knowledge? • How do we know something? • Can we be certain? 19. Important Terminology Dualism Reality consists of two fundamentally different kinds of things. Example: • Mind • Body Materialism / Physicalism Everything that exists is ultimately physical/material. Easy: Only physical reality exists. Idealism Reality is fundamentally connected to mind, ideas, or consciousness rather than matter alone. Pantheism God and the universe are understood as closely identified. Easy: God = nature/universe Monism Reality ultimately consists of one fundamental substance or reality. Easy: One fundamental reality Skepticism Questions whether we can have certain knowledge. Easy: “How do I know that I really know?” 20. Descartes 5 Descartes wanted to discover something that was certain. Skepticism as the Key to Certainty He used methodological doubt. He questioned: • His senses • His experiences • The external world • Even mathematical beliefs He wanted to doubt everything that could possibly be doubted. Cogito Ergo Sum “I think, therefore I am.” Even if Descartes doubts everything, he cannot doubt that he is thinking. And if he is thinking, he must exist as a thinking being. Remember: Doubting = thinking → thinking proves existence Clear and Distinct Ideas Descartes believed ideas that are perceived clearly and distinctly can provide certainty. Cartesian Dualism Descartes believed there are two fundamentally different substances: Mind • Thinking • Nonphysical Body • Physical • Extended in space Remember: Descartes = mind + body 21. Spinoza = 5 Spinoza disagreed with Descartes' idea of two separate substances. One Substance Spinoza believed there is only one substance. He identified this with God/Nature. This makes Spinoza a form of monism. Remember: Spinoza = ONE substance 22. Conatus Conatus = the drive or tendency of everything to preserve and continue its existence. Think: “I want to keep existing.” It is like a fundamental life force or striving. 23. Spinoza: Active vs. Passive Emotions This is important. Passive emotions These happen to us. We are being affected by something outside ourselves. Examples: • Fear • Jealousy • Anger • Sadness We don't fully understand the cause, so we are less in control. Active emotions These come from understanding and reason. When we understand why something happens, we become more capable of responding rationally. Easy comparison: Passive = something controls my emotional response Active = understanding gives me greater control Spinoza's goal: Move from passive emotions → active emotions through understanding. 24. Thought and Extension Spinoza described two attributes’ humans can understand: Thought The mental/intellectual aspect. Extension The physical/material aspect.. They are not two separate substances. Instead, they are different ways of understanding the same underlying reality. 25. Leibniz Leibniz believed reality is made up of fundamental units called monads. Monads Monads are: • Nonphysical • Simple/basic units of reality • Not physical atoms Remember: Leibniz = Monads Principle of Identity Something is itself. A = A. Example: A dog is a dog. Principle of Sufficient Reason Everything that happens or exists must have a sufficient reason explaining why it is that way rather than another way. Easy: “Why is this the way it is?” There must be a reason. — FINAL CRASH NOTES: PART 2 JOHN LOCKE Tabula Rasa = “Blank Slate” Locke believed the mind is not born filled with ideas. Instead, the mind starts like a blank slate, and knowledge develops through experience. Tabula rasa = blank slate “Nothing exists in the mind that was not first in the senses.” Meaning: We first experience things through our senses, and those experiences become ideas in our minds. Easy example: Baby sees → hears → touches → tastes → experiences the world → develops knowledge. 🔑 Remember: LOCKE = EXPERIENCE GEORGE BERKELEY Idealism Berkeley believed that reality is fundamentally connected to perception/mind. He rejected the idea that physical matter exists independently of perception in the way people usually assume. Famous phrase: Esse est percipi Meaning: “To be is to be perceived.” Simple example: You see a chair. Berkeley focuses on the chair as something perceived rather than saying there is a completely independent material chair existing exactly as we imagine it outside perception. 🔑 Remember: BERKELEY = PERCEPTION DAVID HUME Skepticism Hume was skeptical about what we can know with certainty. He argued that what we directly experience are perceptions. Famous quote: “The only existences of which we are certain, are perceptions.” What does that mean? You experience: • sights • sounds • feelings • thoughts • sensations But Hume questions whether we can be absolutely certain about things beyond those perceptions. Modified Skeptic Hume does not necessarily say: “Nothing is real.” Instead, he recognizes that humans naturally believe things based on experience, even though we cannot always prove them with absolute certainty. 🔑 Remember: HUME = SKEPTICISM Think: “Can I really be certain?” 🧠 LOCKE vs. BERKELEY vs. HUME This is VERY important. Philosopher Main Idea Memory Word Locke Knowledge comes from experience Experience Berkeley Being is connected to perception Perception Hume We should be skeptical about certainty Skepticism Memorize this: Locke → Experience Berkeley → Perception Hume → Skepticism IMMANUEL KANT Kant is probably one of the more difficult philosophers on your study guide, so don't overcomplicate him. Copernican Revolution in Philosophy Before Kant, philosophers often asked: How does our mind understand the world? Kant changed the way people thought about the relationship between the mind and reality. His basic idea: Our minds help structure the way we experience reality. Instead of the mind simply receiving information from the world, the mind actively organizes experience. Easy way to think about it: World → Mind doesn't just receive it → Mind organizes experience Phenomena vs. Noumena This is VERY important. Phenomena What we experience/perceive. It's reality as it appears to us. Think: Phenomena = appearance/experience Noumena Things-in-themselves. Reality as it exists independently of how humans experience it. Kant called this: Das Ding-an-sich German for: “The Thing-In-Itself” Think: Phenomena = what I experience Noumena = thing as it is in itself 🚨 SUPER EASY KANT MEMORY TRICK P = Phenomena = Perceived N = Noumena = Not directly known So: P = what appears N = thing-in-itself CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE This is Kant's major idea in ethics. The categorical imperative basically says: Act according to principles that you could want everyone to follow. Example: You want to lie to get something. Ask: “What if everyone lied whenever it benefited them?” If everyone did that, trust and communication would break down. Therefore, lying isn't something you could consistently want as a universal rule. Easy version: Would it be okay if EVERYONE did this? If not, don't do it. 🔑 Remember: KANT = UNIVERSAL MORAL RULE 🧠 KANT IN ONE MINUTE Kant: Copernican Revolution → Mind helps organize experience. Phenomena → Reality as we experience it. Noumena → Things-in-themselves. Categorical Imperative → Act according to rules you could want everyone to follow. Memory sentence: Kant says our minds organize experience, we experience phenomena rather than directly knowing noumena, and morality requires universal principles. 🌎 CONTINENTAL TRADITION Now your study guide moves into: Existentialism Existentialism focuses heavily on the individual person and their experience of existence. It asks questions like: • Why am I here? • What does my life mean? • How should I live? • How do I deal with suffering? • Do I have freedom? • How do I deal with uncertainty? PHENOMENOLOGY Phenomenology focuses on conscious experience. Basically: What is it like to experience something from the first-person perspective? Instead of immediately asking whether something objectively exists, phenomenology examines how it appears in our experience. Remember: Phenomenology = experience/consciousness EXISTENTIALISM — MAIN CONCEPTS Your study guide gives you several phrases. Let's translate them into normal language. Focus on the individual Existentialism focuses on your individual existence and choices. Not just: “What does society tell me to do?” But: “What am I going to choose?” Confrontation with the world Humans have to deal with a world that doesn't always give us clear answers. Life can be confusing, difficult, and unpredictable. Existential predicament The difficult situation of being a human being who has: • freedom • responsibility • uncertainty • mortality • choices THE WORLD IS ABSURD Absurd does not simply mean “funny.” It means there can be a conflict between: Our desire for meaning and A world that doesn't provide obvious meaning. THE WORLD IS IRRATIONAL The world doesn't always operate according to what seems fair or logical to us. Bad things can happen to good people. Good things can happen to bad people. We don't always get answers. EXISTENTIAL EMOTIONS Your study guide lists: • Senselessness • Anxiety • Dread • Self-doubt • Despair These are connected to confronting existence and uncertainty. Easy way: “What am I supposed to do with my life when there aren't easy answers?” That is an existential question. SØREN KIERKEGAAR 4 Kierkegaard is considered an important precursor/foundational thinker of existentialism. He focused heavily on: • Individual existence • Choice • Anxiety • Despair • Faith • Personal responsibility Important idea: Kierkegaard believed that individuals must personally confront the difficult choices of existence. You cannot simply let society make all your choices for you. NOLOGY 🌎 1. Continental Tradition The Continental tradition focuses heavily on questions about: • Human existence • Meaning • Freedom • Individual experience • Anxiety • Society • What it means to be human Two major areas in your guide: Existentialism Focuses on the individual and their existence. Phenomenology Focuses on conscious experience and how things appear to us. Easy memory: Existentialism = How do I live? Phenomenology = How do I experience? EXISTENTIALISM Main Concepts Focus on the individual Existentialists are interested in the individual people: • Choices • Freedom • Responsibility • Meaning • Identity Confrontation with the world People must face a world that doesn't always give them easy answers. Existential predicament Humans must deal with: • Freedom • Choices • Death • Uncertainty • Responsibility • Meaning The world is absurd Absurd means there is a conflict between our desire for meaning and a world that may not provide obvious meaning. The world is irrational Life doesn't always make sense. Things don't always happen according to what seems fair or logical. Existential emotions You may experience: Anxiety → dread → self-doubt → despair These can come from confronting freedom, uncertainty, death, and meaning. 🧔 2. SØREN KIERKEGAARD 4 ⭐ Main idea: The individual must personally choose how to live. Kierkegaard is an important early existentialist thinker. Three Stages of Life 1. Aesthetic Stage Living for: • Pleasure • Entertainment • Immediate experiences The person avoids deeper commitment. Think: “I just want to enjoy myself.” 2. Ethical Stage The person begins taking: • Responsibility • Commitment • Morality more seriously. Think: “I have responsibilities, and my choices matter.” 3. Religious Stage The individual develops a personal relationship with God/faith. This requires a leap of faith. Leap of Faith A leap of faith means making a commitment to faith even though you cannot prove everything through reason. Important: Kierkegaard believed faith involves personal commitment, not simply intellectually knowing facts about religion. Importance of the Individual Kierkegaard emphasized that truth and faith must become personally lived. Remember: Kierkegaard = Individual + stages + leap of faith 🧔‍♂️ 3. FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE 4 Nietzsche is VERY important. ⭐ Main ideas: Will to power + master/slave morality + Ubermensch + eternal recurrence Eternal Recurrence Nietzsche asks you to imagine: What if you had to live your exact life over and over again forever? Every decision. Every mistake. Every happiness. Everything. Why does he ask this? It challenges you to ask: “Am I living my life in a way that I could accept repeating forever?” 🐪 Camel → 🦁 Lion → 👶 Child This represents stages of transformation. 🐪 Camel The camel carries burdens. Represents: • Obedience • Accepting traditional values • Carrying expectations Think: “I will carry what society tells me.” 🦁 Lion The lion fights against old values and expectations. Represents: • Rebellion • Saying “No” • Rejecting imposed values Think: “I refuse to simply accept what society tells me.” 👶 Child The child represents: • Creativity • New beginnings • Creating new values • Freedom Think: “I can create my own values.” ⭐ Memorize: Camel = obey Lion = rebel Child = create Will to Power The will to power is the drive to: • Grow • Overcome obstacles • Develop oneself • Express strength • Create and achieve It is more complicated than simply wanting political power. Think: “Become stronger and overcome yourself.” Slave Morality vs. Master Morality Slave Morality Values associated with: • Humility • Weakness • Submission • Compassion • Turning the other cheek Nietzsche criticized morality that he believed glorified weakness. Master Morality Values associated with: • Strength • Achievement • Confidence • Excellence • Self-assertion Easy: Slave morality → weakness/submission Master morality → strength/self-assertion Ubermensch Ubermensch = Overman / Higher Human A person who: • Overcomes themselves • Creates their own values • Does not blindly follow society • Strives for excellence Important: Don't think “superhero.” Think: Someone who creates and lives according to higher values rather than blindly following the crowd. ☕ 4. FRANZ KAFKA 5 The Metamorphosis Kafka's famous story about Gregor Samsa, who wakes up transformed into a strange insect-like creature. The story explores themes such as: • Isolation • Alienation • Identity • Meaning • Family • Absurdity Remember: Kafka = Metamorphosis = alienation/absurdity 🧔 5. ALBERT CAMUS 5 Camus is one of the most important existential/absurdist thinkers. The Myth of Sisyphus Sisyphus is condemned to push a huge rock up a hill. Every time he gets near the top: The rock rolls back down. He has to do it again. And again. And again. Why is this important? It represents the human condition: We search for meaning, but life may not give us a clear ultimate meaning. Life is Absurd Camus believed there is a conflict between: Human desire for meaning and A universe that doesn't provide obvious meaning. That's the absurd. Revolt Against Absurdity Camus' response isn't: “Give up.” Instead: Recognize the absurd and continue living anyway. We should live fully even without a guaranteed ultimate meaning. Suicide as a Philosophical Question Camus asks: If life is absurd, is suicide the logical response? His answer is essentially no. Instead, we should confront absurdity and continue living. Need for Clarity Camus values honestly recognizing reality rather than comforting ourselves with false certainty. Need for social warmth and contact Humans still need: • Connection • Friendship • Community • Relationships Even in an absurd world, relationships can make life richer. Remember Camus: Absurdity → don't give up → revolt/live → relationships 🧔‍♂️ 6. JEAN-PAUL SARTRE 6 Sartre is another VERY important philosopher. Existence Precedes Essence This is probably Sartre's most important phrase. Traditional idea: Something has an essence that determines what it is. Sartre flips this for human beings. Humans exist first. Then: We define ourselves through our choices. So: You are not born with a predetermined purpose that completely defines you. You create yourself through your actions. Memory: Existence → choices → essence Condemned to Be Free Sartre believed humans are free. But freedom is difficult because: We are responsible for our choices. You cannot completely escape responsibility by saying: “I had no choice.” Bad Faith Bad faith = lying to yourself about your freedom/responsibility. Example: “I'm just this way. I can't change.” Sartre might say you're denying your freedom. Remember: Bad faith = pretending you aren't free/responsible Authenticity Authenticity = honestly accepting your freedom and responsibility. Instead of: “Everyone else expects me to do this.” You ask: “What do I genuinely choose?” Abandonment Sartre's atheism means there is no God providing a predetermined moral rulebook. Therefore, humans experience abandonment. We are responsible for choosing our values. Atheism Sartre was an atheist existentialist. Without God determining our essence or purpose: We must create meaning through our choices. Fundamental Project Each person has an overall direction or project through which they try to make sense of their life. It represents the way someone chooses to live and define themselves. Remember Sartre: Freedom + responsibility + choices + authenticity 👩 7. SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR 6 Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialist ideas to women's lives and social roles. The Second Sex Her famous book examines the ways women have been treated as the “Other” in society. She challenged the idea that women's roles are simply natural or predetermined. Free to Choose Existentialism emphasizes that people have freedom and responsibility. Beauvoir applies this to women: Women should have the freedom to determine their own lives rather than being restricted by social expectations. Remember: Beauvoir = Existentialism + women + freedom 📚 8. EDMUND HUSSERL 4 Husserl is the major philosopher you need to associate with: PHENOMENOLOGY Phenomenology studies conscious experience. Instead of immediately asking: “What is the object really?” Husserl asks: “How does this object appear in my experience?” Transcendental Phenomenology Husserl wanted to investigate the structures of consciousness that make experience possible. Bracketing This is important. Bracketing = temporarily setting aside assumptions about whether something objectively exists. You're focusing on: Your experience of the thing. Example: Instead of asking: “Does this chair objectively exist?” You ask: “How do I experience this chair?” Phenomenological Reduction You reduce your attention to the experience itself. Think: Set aside assumptions → examine experience → understand consciousness Consciousness For Husserl, consciousness is always consciousness of something. You're conscious of: • A thought • An object • A memory • A sound • A person Remember: Husserl = Phenomenology = consciousness + experience + bracketing 🧔‍♂️ 9. MARTIN HEIDEGGER 5 Heidegger is focused heavily on: BEING His major question: What does it mean to be? Thrown Into the World Humans don't choose: • When they're born • Where they're born • Their family • Their historical situation We are thrown into a world that already exists. Example: You didn't choose: “I want to be born in this country, during this year, into this family.” You simply find yourself already here. Remember: Thrownness = I find myself already in a world I didn't choose. Sinn Sinn = sense / meaning Heidegger is interested in how human beings understand and interpret meaning. Everydayness Most of the time, people simply go through everyday routines: • Wake up • Go to school • Work • Eat • Scroll • Sleep We can become absorbed in everyday life without deeply questioning our existence. Think: Everydayness = ordinary routine life Care Care is central to Heidegger's understanding of human existence. Humans are always concerned with: • Their lives • Other people • Their future • Their responsibilities • What matters to them Simple: Being human means caring about things. Chatter Chatter means the constant talk/opinions circulating around us. It can keep us from genuinely thinking for ourselves. Example: “Everyone says college is supposed to be like this.” “Everyone says success means this.” “Everyone says I should do this.” Heidegger asks whether you're actually thinking for yourself. The Question of Being This is Heidegger's BIG question: What does it mean to be? Not simply: “What things exist?” But: “What is Being itself?” Poetry Heidegger believed poetry can help reveal Being and meaning in ways ordinary everyday language may not. Remember: Heidegger = Being + thrownness + everydayness + care

SAT Princeton Review Vocab (Paul Merrill) & Practice Test Words

La Philosophie de Jean-Paul Sartre

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Géo : Londres, São Paulo et l'Urbanisation Mondiale

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Thema 1: Germanistik & Teildisziplinen 1. Was ist Germanistik und aus welchen Teildisziplinen besteht sie? Die Germanistik ist allgemein die Wissenschaft von deutscher Sprache und Literatur, diese lässt sich in die folgenden Teildisziplinen aufgliedern: • Neuere deutsche Literaturwissenschaft (Deutschsprachige Literatur von Beginn des Buchdrucks bis heute) • Mediävistik (8-15 Jhr, Erforschung der Geschichte des Mittelalters; ältere dt. Sprach und Literaturwissenschaft) • Sprachwissenschaft (Linguistik) • Deutschdidaktik (Theorie der Lehr- und Lernprozesse in Lernkontexten) · Deutsch als Fremdsprache/Zweitsprache 2. Mit welchem Zeitraum befasst sich die Ndl? 15. Jhr bis heute 3. Was unterscheidet die Fachwissenschaft von der Fachdidaktik? Die Didaktik befasst sich mit der Lehre des Lernens. Die Fachwissenschaft liefert die Erkenntnisse, die gelehrt werden. Sprache Literatur Fachwissenschaftler (Gegenstandsorientiert) Sprachwissenschaft (Linguistik) Literaturwissenschaft (NdL) Fachdidaktik (Literatur als Bildungsgegenstand) Sprachdidaktik (in Lehr- und Lernkontexten) Literaturdidaktik (in Lehr- und Lernkontexten)4. Welche Teildisziplinen der Germanistik lassen sich der Fachwissenschaft, welche der Fachdidaktik zuordnen? Didaktik: Deutschdidaktik Wissenschaft: Ndl, Mediävistik, Linguistik. Deutsch als Zweitsprache 5. Worin besteht der zentrale Unterschied zwischen Literaturwissenschaft und Literaturkritik? In der Literaturkritik werden Texte bewertet, ästhetische Wertung im Vordergrund Kritik ist eine Bewertung ! In der Literaturwissenschaft werden Texte ausgewertet (fragen nach der historischen Einordnung, poetologischen Regeln & die Textstruktur) -> Wissenschaft mit eigenen Fragestellungen und Methoden, theoretisch reflektierter Umgang mit der Literatur 6. Was unterscheidet einen literaturwissenschaftlich geschulten Leser von einem naiven Leser? Der Naive Leser liest die Lektüre aufgrund des ästhetischen Genusses & des intellektuellen Vergnügens Der geschulte Leser achtet theoretisch geleitet, reflektiert und analysiert die Lektüre, benötigt eine Distanz und zeitintensive Aufmerksamkeit7. Was leisten festgelegte Begriffe- sogenannte Fachtermini- der Literaturwissenschaft? Fachtermini sind feste Methoden und Schrittfolge, die benötigt werden, um die Eigenschaften des Textes zu erfassen und erklären zu können. Garantiert allen Diskussionsteilnehmern die Gewissheit, über dieselben Dinge zu reden -> Intersubjektive Verständigung Thema 2: Literatur · Was ist Literatur? - besteht aus Sachtexten und literarischen Texten - Unterscheidung von Sachtexten und literarischen de Texten - Literarizität & Poetizität - Fiktionalität - Jeder Text der Welt ist ein literarischer Text oder ein Sachtext Hauptmerkmale -Abweichung (Verfremdung) - bewusst produzierte von der Alltagssprache, um den Fokus auf -> brechen die Konventionen und Erwartungen der Alltagssprache - Autofunktionalität • Konnotation • Polysemie - die Mehrdeutigkeit, die durch den Aufbau von assoziierten zusätzlich Wortbedeutungen erzeugt wird (Putzfrau - Reinigungskraft) 1. Erläutern Sie die Begriffe Ästhetikkonvention und Fiktionsvertrag. Fiktionsvertrag: Wissen das es Fiktion ist , aber so tun als wäre es real (als ob Situation)Vertrag zwischen Autor und Leser, Autor zeigt, dass es sich um eine mögliche Welt handelt, und der Leser nimmt dies an (Als-Ob-Modus) Ästhetikkonvention: Bewertung nicht nach wahr oder falsch , sondern nach subjektiver ästhetischeinung steht für das Ziel des Textes, dem ästhetischen Genuss, die Frage danach, ob ein Text ästhetisch gelungen ist. 2. Worin besteht der Unterschied zwischen einer pragmatischen und einer ästhetischen Lesehaltung? In der pragmatischen Lesehaltung werden meist Sachtexte gelesen, um aus ihnen zu lernen (Mittel zum Zweck; Gebrauchtstexte) In der ästhetischen Lesehaltung werden meist literarische Texte gelesen zum Selbstzweck (dient dem ästhetischen Genuss) 3. Welche beide Merkmalen unterschieden literarische von nicht-literarischen Texten? ↳Sachtexten ! Die beiden Hauptmerkmale: Fiktionalität (p.T.) und Literarizität (l.T) 1. Lektüre und Bewertungskonventionen • Prag. Texte= Monovalenzkonvvention (Eindeutikeit) & Tatsachenvalenz (reale Welt) • Lit. Texte= Polyvalenzkonvention (Mehrdeutigkeit) & Ästhetikkonvention (Möglichkeit. Welt) Lesehaltung 2. Lesehaltung• Prag. Texte= Prag. Lesehaltung • lit. Texte= ästhetische Lesehaltung 4. Was bedeutet Autofunktionalität und auf wen geht dieser Begriff zurück? Die Autofunktionalität meint, dass die Sprache auf sich selbst verweist (so weit, dass der Inhalt der Mitteilung selbst in den Hintergrund gedrängt wird) - Roman Jakobson- 5. Was bedeutet das Begriffspaar Denotation und Konnotation? Denotation: Mehr oder weniger explizit definierte Wortbedeutung Konnotation: assoziierte Wortbedeutung, ohne die metaphorische Aussagen nicht denkbar wären 6. Welche Fiktionalitätsindikatoren kennen Sie und auf wen gehen diese zurück? Def.: Fiktionalität: (formen, gestalten, bilden) Inhalt der Werke basiert auf erfundenen Welten/ Dingen -> imaginär, kein Anspruch auf Überprüfbarkeit Fiktionsindikatoren: -Kälte Hamburger- - Verben innerer Vorgänge (Verben des Fühlens/ Empfindens/ der internen Wahrnehmung) - epische Präteritum (Präteritum verliert seine grammatische Funktion über die Vergangenheit zu informieren) -> Indikatoren Bilden Merkmale, keine eindeutigenKriterien 7. Worin besteht der Unterschied zwischen fiktiv und fiktional? Fiktiv: bezieht sich auf eine bestimmte Existenzweise von Gegenständen, derart, das diese Gegenstände nicht existieren „Die Hauptfigur des Romans ist fiktiv“ Fiktional: bezieht sich auf die Darstellungsweise, derart dass das Dargstellte nicht existiert „Der Roman Harry Potter ist fiktional“ 8. Sind alle fiktionalen Texte literarisch? Nein, nicht alle literarischen Texte sind fiktionale Texte, sowie nicht alle fiktionalen Texte literarisch sind. -> Literarizität und Funktionalität müssen nicht notwendig zsm auftreten, es gibt nicht-fiktionale Literatur sowie nicht-literarische Funktionen 9. Warum ermöglichen die Merkmale Literarizität und Fiktionalität keine Wesensbestimmung literarischer Texte? Die beiden Merkmale ermöglich keine Wesensbestimmung, da eine strenge Grenzziehung mit diesen Merkmalen nicht möglich ist. -> Rezipient muss beachtet werden, da grundsätzlich jeder Text im ästhetischen Modus gelesen werden kannThema 5: Epochen und Gattungen Aufgabe der Wissenschaft: • in einem gewissen Bereich ein geordnetes, begründetes und als gesichert angesehenes Wissen hervorzubringen • Als Kennzeichen dieses Wissens gelten: Systematik, Methodik, Objektivität & Intersubjektive Nachprüfbarkeit 1. Was versteht man in der Literaturwissenschaft unter einem Stoff?Was ist ein Motiv? Wie lassen sich Texte den Textgruppen zuordnen? durch den Autor Durch das Thema: Thema eines literarischen Textes= Gegenstand/ Subjekt (Freundschaft, Liebe, Tod) - Thema nicht immer direkt offensichtlich Durch den Stoff: Ist eine unerhebliche der Dichtung vorgeprägte Handlung, die als Ergebnis, Bericht usw. an den Dichter herangetragen und einen Anreiz zur künstlerischen Gestaltung bietet bezeichnet Durch das Motiv: ist eine kleine stofflich-thematische Einheit - bestimmte Epochen haben motivliche Vorlieben; kehrt ein Motiv mehrfach auf -> Leitmotiv Durch Gattungen und Epochen (Lyrik, Epik, Drama) 2. Welche Funktionen erfüllen Gattungen und Epochen? Es geht um die gemeinsamen Merkmale Bestimmter Texte, die diese entweder zu einer gemeinsamen Gattung oder Epoche zusammenfassen Gattungsbegriffe: fassen Texte ohne nähere Betrachtung ihrer Entstehungszeit und ihrer Autoren zusammen - textbezogene Kriterien; keine eindeutigeSystematisierung, aber bst. FormEpochenbegriffe: befasst sich mit der literarischen Generation (Zeit) -> gliedern die Abfolge von Autoren und Werken in historischer Dimension 3. Welches sind die drei Hauptgattungen der Literatur? 4. Worin unterscheidet sich die Dramatik, Epik und Lyrik? Unterscheiden sich durch den Erzähler. Der Erzähler der Epik ist ein Erzähler der aus einer narrativen Sichtweise berichtet. In der Dramatik führt eine Figur durch die Handlung. In der Lyrik berichtet das lyrische Ich. 5. Was verstehen Sie unter den Begriffen ´Kindheitsautonomie´ und ´Schonraumliteratur´? Kindheitsautonomie: bezeichnet die Trennung von kindlichen und erwachsenen Figuren; Kindheit ist autonom, erhält Eigenwert Kindheit wird ein Zustand der Freiheit -> Idee desSchonraums Schonraumliteratur: meint, dass man den Kindern nicht die Gefahren der Welt aufzeigt • Probleme der Erwachsenen gelten für das Kind als unverständlich, werden als nicht-kindgemäß ausgegrenzt • Kindheit wird als Gegenbild inszeniert 6. Wie heißen die drei großen Kinderbuchautoren der 50/60 er? Otfried Preußler - Räuber Hotzenplotz, das kl. Gespenst Lokomotivführer Michael Ende - Momo, Jim Knopf & Lukas der James Krüss - mein Urgroßvater und Ich 7. Welches ist die bevorzugte Gattung der Schonraumliteratur? Kindheitsautonomie & Schonraumliteratur lassen sich besonders gut in der Phantastik umsetzen (Pippi Langstrumpf) 8. Worin besteht die neue Kindheitsvorstellung der KJL in den 70er Jahren? • Wandel wird u.a. Durch die Studentenbewegung getragen; von der Ideologie der heilen Kinderwelt zur Forderung nach polit. Erziehung durch neueKinderbücher • Emanzipation des Kindes -> gleichberechtigte Teilhabe an der Welt der Erwachsenen • Kindheitsautonomie & Realistisches Schreiben wurde gefordert 9. Benennen Sie die zentralen Merkmale der Gattung der realistisch, problemorientierten KJL. • Tendenz zum realistischen Schreiben, sowie zur “Problemnähe“ und „Zeitbezogenheit“ • Direkter Bezug zu den aktuellen Wirklichkeitserfahrungen, den Problemlagen und Konflikte der jungen Leser • junge Hauptdarsteller die mit dem Leser auf Augenhöhe sind • meist ein offenes Ende (da Probleme fortbestandlich sind) • Neue Themen: Bruch mit thematischen Tabus- kann seither jedes Thema sein • Fordert Realismus programmatisch ein 10. Nennen Sie zwei wichtige Autoren der realistisch, problemorientierten KJL. Ursula Wölfel - Die grauen und die grünen Felder Peter Härtling - Ben liebt Anna/ Das war der Hirbel 11. Nennen Sie drei Werke der realistischen, problemorientierten KJL. Oma, Ben liebt Anna, Das war der Hirbel12. Warum haben viele Texte der KJL ein offenes Ende? Ein offenes Ende steht dafür, dass das Problem weiterhin existiert und nicht verschwunden ist. Enden nicht mit Ende des Buches. 13. Worin besteht die Funktion der realistischen, problemorientierten KJL? Die KJL soll die Kinder erziehen, aufklären, ihre Einstellung verändern und sie für politische und soziale Forderungen sensibilisieren. Sollen Bewusstsein für Missstände bekommen und an der Beseitigung dieser mitwirken -> zielt auf die Persönlichkeitsbildung ab Thema 6: Analyse epischer Texte 1. Worin besteht der Unterschied zwischen einer Analyse und einer Interpretation? Analyse: Genaue Beobachtungen am Text • analytische Zugänge: über den Erzähler, die Geschichte, das Thema, Motiv, Gattung & Autor • Textbeobachtungen (rhet. Aufbau) Was ist auffällig? Was bringt mich weiter, um mehr über den Text zu verstehen? • Kein Selbstzweck; Analysenmethoden= Werkzeuge, die für den gebrauch gewählt werden müssen Interpretation: Auf der Basis der Analyse gelangt man zurInterpretation • Was bedeutet die Beobachtung eigentlich? • „Jede interpretative Aussage setzt Beobachtungen voraus, die umso genauer ausfallen, je genauer der Text analysiert wird“ 2. Warum ist es wichtig, bei der Analyse epischer Texte den Erzähler näher zu bestimmen? Epische Texte (Romane, Noevelle…) zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass das Geschehen durch den Erzähler vermittelt wird -> Erzähler= Vermittlungsinstanz, nicht unmittelbar am Geschehen beteiligt -> Von der Wahl des Erzählers ist der Informationsgrad des Textes ab (welche Infos der Leser erhält) - entscheidet darüber wie der Leser die Infos behält (sachlich/ironisch…) 3. Nach welchen Kategorien analysiert Jürgen Petersen den Erzähler? (1993) Sichtweisen: - Ich-Erzähler ist eingeschränkter als Er-Erzähler • Ich-Erzähler kann glaubwürdig die Außensicht, aber nicht die Innensicht beschreiben (Inensicht beschränkt auf das eigene Ich) • Er-Erzähler hat unter Umständen nur eine Außensicht Erzählverhalten: • Auktorial (mischt sich ein, gibt Hinweise, Kommentare) • Personal (Perspektive der Figur, aus der erzählt wird) • Neutral (Erzähler= kaum greifbar; sachlich-berichtend, Figuren stellen sich selbst an) Erzählform • Spricht von sich selbst - Ich-Form • Erzählt von dritten - Er/Sie/Es- Form • Spricht von Angesprochenen - Du- Form Erzählhaltung: • gemeint ist die weitere Stellungnahme des Erzählers dem Erzählten gegenüber • Neutral, ironisch, distanzier, plakativ, distanziert, affirmativ (bestätigend) Achtung! - bei Peterson ist der auktorialer Erzähler =/ allwissender Erzähler 4. Worin besteht in der Erzähltheorie der Unterschied zwischen dem erzählenden und dem erlebenden Ich? Das erzählende Ich berichtet als Ich-Erzähler mit zeitlicher Distanz. Das erlebende Ich ist das Ich von dem erzählt wird. Erzählende Ich: - ist das Ich, das aus zeitlicher Distanz etwas, was vor längerer Zeit geschehen ist, erzählt -> Erzähler seiner Geschichte „damals“ Erlebendes Ich: ist das Ich, das die Dinge so erzählt, Ei es sie einst in der erzählten Welt wie es sie einst in der erzählten Welt erlebt hat -> Erzähler seiner Geschichte „jetzt“ 5. Welche Arten der Fokalisierung unterscheidet Gerard Genette? Fokalisierung: „Informationsschleusen“, die nur die Elemente passieren lassen, die der gewählte Fokus zulässt - Sichtweise Nullfokalisation: • keine Einschränkung des Blickwinkels durch eine Figur • Sichtweise eines allwissenden auktorialen Erzählers Interne Fokalisation • erzählt aus der Sicht einer oder mehrerer Figuren - Innensicht • Fokus fällt mit der Figur zusammen, die zum Subjekt der Wahrnehmung wird Externe Fokalisation: • Fokus fällt mit keiner Figur zusammen, sodass keine Einblicke in die Gefühlswelt oder die Gedanken der Handlungsträger möglich sind => Peterson & Genette sind Idealtypische Konstruktion; helfen Beobachtung an den Texten zu machen, es gibt sehr häufig Mischformen (z.B. externe & interne Fokalisierung) Analysekategorien - nicht dogmatisch- starr (flexibel umgehen) 6. Was ist eine Paralepse? Paralepse= Wenn der Erzähler dem Leser mehr Informationen gibt, als ihm seine Fokalisierung eigentlich erlaubt Paralipse= Wenn der Erzähler dem Leser Informationen vorenthält, die er eigentlich aufgrund seiner Fokalisierung geben müsste 7. Was meint Erzählzeit und erzählte Zeit? In welchem Verhältnis können Erzählzeit und erzählte Zeit zueinanderstehen? • Erzählzeit= ist die Zeit die benötigt wird um ein bestimmtes Geschehen zu erzählen. (Gemessen an Seiten- und Zeilenzahlen) • erzählte Zeit= ist die „Zeit des Inhaltes“, also die Zeit, die das erzählte Geschehen in Wirklichkeit beanspruchen würde • Zeitraffendes Erzählen = erzähltest kürzer als die erzählte Zeit • Zeitdeckendes Erzählen = Erzählzeit = erzählte Zeit (z.B. Dialog) • Zeitdehnendes Erzählen = Erzählzeit ist länger als die erzählte Zeit 8. Wozu dient Ihnen eine nähere Betrachtung von Erzählzeit und erzählter Zeit? -> unterschiedliches Erzählverhalten gliedern die erzählte Wirklichkeit, setzt Schwerpunkte ermöglicht Haupt und Nebensätze zu entscheiden und die Bedeutung der inneren und äußeren Handlung auszumachen 9. Was ist ein Innerer Monolog? Ein innerer Monolog einer Figur ist oft ein Selbstgespräch/ eindeutige Personenrede; nicht dem Erzähler zuzurechnen; eine Technik der Gedankenwiedergabe (Bewusstseinsstrom) 2 Kriterien: 1. situatives Kriterium der Einsamkeit des Sprechers (Selbstgespräch, an keinen gerichtet) 2. Das strukturelle Kriterium des Umfangs& des in sich geschlossenen Zusammenhangs einer Replik —————————————————————————— ————— Figurenrede: • direkte Rede: ist unmittelbar subjektiver Ausdruck der Person; Atmosphäre des unmittelbaren beteiligt Seins (mehr in Szene gesetzt als erzählt) • Indirekte Rede: häufig im Konjunktiv; Indirektheit, die eine Distanz schafft, verweist direkt auf den Erzähler (Indirekte Rede gehört der Figur nicht allein) Zeitliche Ordnung: • Erzähler kann die chronologische Folge der Zeit beibehalten oder ändern, z.B. mit dem Ende beginnen o. Zum Anfang zurückkehren • > erhöhen die Komplexität des Erzählgeflechts • Anachronie = zeitl. Umstellung der Erzählreihenfolge • Proleose = vorausschauender Erzähleinschub • Analepse = Rückblende, die bereits vergangenes Erzählt • Ellipse = Auslassung eines Zeitabschnitts im Erzählen Thema 7: Analyse dramatischer Texte 15. Welche neue dramatische Gattung begründete Lessing? Bürgerliches Trauerspiel welches den normalen Bürger tragödienfähig macht 16. Wie nannte Brecht seine Methoden, um das aristotelisch geprägte Illusionstheater zu zerstören? Mittel der leeren Bühne, Verfremdungseffekte (Handlung bekannt geben), Schauspieler zeigen das sie schauspielern -> sollten die Illusion zerstören, Distanz vom Zuschauer zum Bühnengeschehen herstellen (orientiert sich nicht mehr an Aristoteles) Merkmale der Offenen Form: - Vielheit statt Einheit - Fragment statt Totalität - statt einem abgerundeten Ganzen: Brüche und Zusammenfügungen disparater Teile Thema 8: Analyse lyrischer Texte 1. Benennen Sie wichtige Merkmale lyrischer Texte. • Deutliche Abweichung von der Alltagssprache (Verfremdungseffekte; Metrum, Reim, Wiederholung) • Kürze (in qualitativer und quantitativer Hinsicht) • Keine narrativer Instanz, sondern Vermittler (lyrisches Ich) • Gattung ohne Handlung 12 bis 13 silbriger Vers mit männl. Oder weibl. Kadenzen, feste Zäsur nach 3. Hebung • Blankvers: in England entstanden - reimloserjambischer Fünfheber mit männl./weibl. kadenz -> wichtigster deutscher Dramenvers • Knittervers: unregelmäßiger gefüllter Vierheber, paarreimigThema 9: Methoden der Literaturwissenschaft 1. Was leisten Methoden? Analysen= theoriegeleitete Analysen am Text (Bestimmung des Erzählers, Gattung, Versmaß usw.) – genaue Analysen sind Voraussetzungen für die Interpretation eines Textes Interpretationen= bedeutet Auslegung, Erklärung, Deutung (auf Basis der Analyse) lit. Texte gelten als interpretationsbedürftig ➔ ➔ ➔ ➔ Intensive Betrachtung; sind stets methodisch geleitet ➔ ➔ ➔ ➔ In der Literaturwissenschaft herrscht ein Methodenpluralismus; Methoden sind erforderlich um zu einer Interpretation zu gelangen 2. Hermeneutik (am meisten verbreitet) - Gilt als die „Kunst der Auslegung und des Verstehens lit. Texte“, die den „Sinn“ eines Textes erschließen sollen - Geht auf den Götterboten Hermes zurück - War zunächst eine Bibelauslegung, die mehrere Bedeutungsebenen aufweist (Literalsinn, Allegorischer Sinn, Moralischer Sinn, Analogischer Sinn) - Ab 1800: moderne Hermeneutik, die sich mit dem Verstehen lit. Texte auseinandersetzt (Grund war das Ende der Regelpoetik – Verstehen wurde zum Problem; jedes Werk folgte eig. Regeln) - Moderne Hermeneutik wird mit Friedrich Schleiermacher verbunden (geht von tieferem Sinn/ Bedeutung innerhalb der Texte aus) - Um Sinn herauszuarbeiten, wurden mehrere Methoden verwendet • Hermeneutische Zirkel: man geht von einem einheitlichen, geschlossenen Ganzen aus; Interpretation schließt vom Teil und umgekehrt - Heutzutage: Hermeneutik geht nicht mehr von Autorintentionen aus (den Sinn von dem Autor gemeinten rauszuarbeiten, sondern muss immer wieder neu ausgelegt werden) - Der Text lässt bestimmte Deutungen zu, nicht der Autor! 3. Rezeptionsästhetik (Unterkategorie der Hermeneutik) - Grundlage ist die Hermeneutik, auch hier wird nach dem Sinn gefragt - Hauptvertreter: Hans Robert Jauß, Wolfgang Iser (sog. Konstanzer Schule) - Erstmals wird innerhalb der Trias Autor-Werk-Leser die Rolle des Lesers aufgewertet - Annahme, dass sich der Text erst im Akt des Lesens als lit. Werk konstruiert - Im Mittelpunkt steht nicht mehr das Werk selbst, sondern dessen Aufnahme beim Rezipienten (Vervollständigung durch gedankliche Konstruktion) - ! Wichtig: sog Leerstellen (Andeutungen) oder Unbestimmtheiten werden vom Leser individuell konkretisiert = jede Lektüre ist individuell (unterschiedliche Textinterpretationen) 4. Intertextualität Meint den Bezug eines Textes auf den anderen, z.B. durch Zitate, Parodie, Anspielungen, Themen, Motive, Figurentypen z.B. Star Wars: „Vor langer langer Zeit in einer weit entfernten Galaxy“ (Beginn eines Märchens) - Der Bezug eines Textes auf den anderen etabliert innerhalb des Werkes eine Metaebene: Es erhält zusätzliche Bedeutungsebene - Fokussiert diese Formen der Vernetzung zwischen Texten 5. Strukturalismus - Bricht mit der hermeneutischen Überzeugung, wendet sich gegen das hermeneutische Sinnsuchen - Es geht nicht um die Bedeutung der Zeichen, sondern um die Beziehung der Zeichen untereinander (Signifikant, Ausdrucksseite des sp. Zeichens) - Es geht um die sprachliche Gemachtheit des Textes, seine Strukturen, denn die Literarizität liegt in der ästhetischen Funktion von Sprache - Inhalte sind zweitrangig: strukturelle Analyse konzentriert sich auf die materielle Seite des Werkes - Stark von der Sprachwissenschaft beeinflusst - Ziel der strukturellen Analyse: genaue Analyse der Abweichung von der Alltagssprache 6. Gender Studies - Entstand in den späten 1980er Jahren, als Weiterentwicklung der feministischen Literaturwissenschaft - Fragen nach Geschlechterverhältnis und Zuordnung - Es wird unterschieden zw. Biologischem Geschlecht und kulturell zugeschriebener Geschlechteridentität - Interessiert sich für die kulturelle Repräsentation von Weiblichkeit & Männlichkeit, sowie den gesellschaftlichen und historischen Bedingungen, die in der Gesellschaft herrschen 7. Poststrukturalismus - Sammelbegriff für verschiedene Methoden und Literaturtheorien die antihermeneutisch ausgerichtet sind; Fragen nicht danach, was ein Text bedeutet oder welchen Sinn er hat • Z.B. Dekonstruktion (Jaquces Derrida, Paul de Man) • Diskursanalyse (Michel Foucault) • Intertextulität (Julia Kristeva) - Dekonstruktion geht davon aus, dass die Rekonstruktion eines Testsinns nicht möglich ist (Hermeneutik wird abgelehnt, Sprachsystem ist ein endloser Verweiszusammenhang & Sinn ist ein Aufschub von Bedeutung) Thema 10: Kinderliteratur1. Liegt die Zuständigkeit von Kinder- und Jugendliteratur bei dem Literaturwissenschaftler/innen oder bei den Literaturdidaktiker*innen? • sowohl die Literaturwissenschaft als auch die Fachdidaktik beschäftigen sich mit der KJL • Mittlerweile hat sich in der Literaturwissenschaft auch ein Bereich der KJL-Forschung etabliert • Viele Literaturdidaktiker setzten sich zunehmend mit der Literaturwissenschaft auseinander • KJL sollte sowohl pädagogisch, also auch ästhetisch ansprechend sein 2. Welche Definitionen von Kinderliteratur führt Ewers an? 1. Definition (Kinder- und Jugendlektüre): „die Gesamtheit der von Kindern tatsächlich konsumierten Literatur“; Ausgangspunkt ist das tatsächliche Lektüreverhalten, Kinder legen Merkmale fest 2. Definition (Intentionale KJL): „Literatur die Kinder seitens der Erwachsenen als Lektüre zugeteilt wird“; Texte wird die Eigenschaft zugesprochen, eine geeignete KJL zu sein 3. Definition (nicht-akzeptierteKJL): Texte, die als geeignete potenzielle KJL gelten, die sich aber vorerst noch nicht durchsetzten konnte 4. Definition (intendiert/ nicht-intendiert KJL): Teil der konsumierten Literatur, der mit den Vorstellungen der Erwachsenen konform geht nicht intendierte KJL: Texte die gelesen werden, obwohl sie nicht als geeignet gelten 5. Definition (Sanktionierte und nicht-sanktionierte KJL): KJL die von gesellschaftlich autorisierten Instanzen für geeignet gehalten wird positiv sanktionierte KJL: all die Texte, die von den gesellschaftlich dazu autorisiertenInstanzen zu geeigneter KJL erklärt worden ist 6. Definition (Spezifische KJL): all die Texte, die seitens ihrer Urheber von vornherein als potentielle KJL gedacht war 3. Welche drei Merkmale von Kinderliteratur nennen Rosebrock und Scherf? Worin sehen Sie die entscheidenden Unterschiede der Definitionen von Ewers und Rosebrock/Scherf? • Leseorientierung in der Adressierung: Texte werden üblicherweise spezifisch für Heranwachsende verfasst • Tendenzielle Normativität des Kindheitsbildes: KJL enthält Werte ihrer Entstehungszeit, dadurch auch immer ein Sozialisationsmedium = Päda. Funktion • Eigenes Symbolsystem: KJL hat ein für sie typisches Arsenal an Inhalts- und Darstellungsmuster entwickelt, eigene Konventionen für Gestaltungsmittel, Erzählform und Themen 4. Was war die Haas- Hurrelmann- Debatte? • 1989 in der Zeitschrift „Praxis Deutsch“ geführt - Frage, wie das Verhältnis von Kinderliteratur zur Erwachsenenliteratur ist • Gerhard Haas: • Kinderliteratur sei in einem „erbärmlichen Zustand“, alles sei der Pädagogik unterworfen • Pädagogisch, didaktisch ausgebeutete Literatur • Autoren wollen nur erziehen (Ästhetik wird nicht betrachtet); Verlage/ Schulen suchen Texte nach Päda. Werk aus • > Kinderliteratur soll wie Erwachsenenliteratur nach ästhetischen Maßstäben gewählt werden • Bettina Hurrelmann: • Gibt Haas insofern Recht, dass sie ebenfalls die literarisch-ästhetischen Dimension einordnet - vieles was Haas sagt, sei veraltet, denn viele Verlage & Schulen suchen Texte mittlerweile nach Ästhetik und Pädagogik aus • Päda. Seite darf nicht aufgegeben werden, da Schreiben für Kinder immer ein adressatenangepasstes Schreiben sei (Akkommodation) • Akkomodation findet im Hinblick auf die Sprache, gewählte Themen& Darstellungsstrategien statt (ist bereits pädagogisch) • > man kann nicht nicht-pädagogisch verhalten, KJL sind immer pädagogische Implikationen 5. Nennen Sie drei wichtige Aspekte zu den Lektürepräferenzen von Kindern? 1. Abenteuerliteratur 2. Sachgeschichten 3. Tiergeschichten -> Gegenüberstellung von Leseinteressen und schulischen Angebot zeigt, dass die Literaturauswahl an den Interessen der Kinder vorbeigeht - realistische Literatur dominiert bei den Lehrern -> Lehrer richten Auswahlkriterien auf die pädagogische Zielsetzung statt auf die Fantasie bzw. Fantastische Inhalte 6. Was hat Anna Krüger für die Kinderliteratur geleistet? Anna Krüger zeigte die Wichtigkeit von KJL auf, indem sie die KJL einer literaturwissenschaftlichen Analyse unterzog. Ihre Analyse zeigte es gibt nicht nur triviale KJL sondern auch anspruchsvolle. (Verglich jenes Instrumentarium mit den Universitären von Goethe und Schiller usw.) -> KJL ist auch literarisch anspruchsvoll und interpretationsbedürftig 7. Warum wurde Kinderliteratur lange Zeit nicht in der Schule gelesen? KJL galt bis in die 1960er Jahre als Trivialliteratur und wurde nicht in der Schule gelesen. 8. Seit wann gibt es eine universitäre Kinderliteraturforschung? In den 1970er Jahren etablierte sich die Kinder- und Jugendliteraturforschung. (durch die 68er- Bewegung) - mit der Werkimmanenz war Methode gefunden, die Texte auf den ästhetischen Gehalt hin untersuchen (ohne Fragen nach dem historischen Kontext zu stellen) - Bewegung forderten eine Germanistik mit gesellschaftlich- kritischer, emanzipatorischer Relevanz - Folge: Gegenstandsbereich der Germanistik wurde ausgeweitet (auch Trivialliteratur, Comics…) 9. Benennen Sie wichtige Aspekte der Kinderliteratur der Aufklärung • entstand im letzten Drittel des 18. Jhd (Zeit der Aufklärung) • Schreiben für Kinder sei Angelegenheit für Pädagogen nicht für Dichter - dient der Erziehung, nicht der Unterhaltung • Erzieherische Haltung - primär didaktische Funktion • Exemplarliteratur beliebt; kurze Texte mit erzieherische Lehre oder Moral • Kinderfigur = Vorbilder, Identifikationsangebote der tugendhafte Kinderfigur • Ziel= Nutzen/ Sozialisationsmedium (Vernunftsausbildung des Kindes) • Fabel erlebte Blütephase (z.B. Lessing); stiftete auf poetische Weise zu moralen Nutzen Erster deutscher Kinderbuchklassiker: Joachim Heinrich Kempe: Robinson der Jüngerer Zielsetzung des Buches: Sachkundeunterricht & Vermittlung von Tugenden Thema 11: Bilderbücher 1. Wie definieren Glasenapp und Weinkauff Bilderbücher? Erläutern Sie diese Definition. „Ist bestimmt durch die qualitative und quantitativer Bedeutung der Illustration in der Relation zum Verbaltext. Illustrationen sind ständige Bedeutungsträger, ihre Funktion geht über eine bloße Veranschaulichung oder Kommentierung des Verbaltexte hinaus.“ -> bi-codal, da es Bild und Text vereint & somit verbale und piktorale Zeichen in Rechnung stellt = Bild und Text erzählen gemeinsam Bspw: „Eine Woche voller Samstage“ (Paul Maar) - Illustriertes Kinderbuch 2. Was heißt doppelsinnig bei Bilderbüchern? • Kinder sind im Regelfall keine Selbstständige Teilnehmer an den literarischen Kommuniktionsgeschehen • Zwischen Autor und Kind - erwachsender Vermittler (als sekundärer erw. Adressat) • Häufig werden auch die Leser in ihrer Eigenschaft als lit. Versierter Leser angesprochen -> Kinderbücher, die ein kindlich naiven Leser verborgene Sinnschicht besitzen. = doppelsinnig 3. Wie hieß das erste Bilderbuch der Bilderbuchgeschichte und von wem stammt es? „Orbis sensualium pictus“ (Die sichtbare Welt) von Johannes Amos Comenius 1658 Sachlich belehrende Kinderliteratur; Schbilderbuch, diente der Wissensvermittlung nicht der Unterhaltung Wechsel zum erzählenden Bilderbuch beginnt im dt. Raum ab Mitte des 19. Jhr. 4. Was war das Besondere an Hoffmanns Struwwelpeter? Die Figuren im Struwwelpeter gleichen sind keine kindlichen und niedlichen Darstellungen, sondern eher grotesk. • gegenüber der üblichen Bilderbüchern des 19. Jhd wird das skandalöse an Hoffmanns deutlich - Quelle des zeitlich- satirischen Doppelsinns • Viele politische Andeutungen, die dem heutigen Leser verborgen bleiben, damals aber vom erw. Mitleser verstanden wurde (z.B. satirische Verkörperung des 1848er Revolutionärs Gustave von Struve) • Struwwelpeter bleibt Ausnahme: erst ab den 60er Jahren wurden differenzierteKinderfiguren entwickelt, die Einblicke in die kindliche. Psyche boten • > komplette Abweichung der fleißigen, naiven Kinderfigur 5. Worin bestand die Innovation, die Maurice Sendak in das Bilderbuch einbrachte? „Wo die wilden Kerle wohnen“ - 1963 • anfangs stark diskutiert, da sich der Protagonist Max gegen die päd. Normen wiederseht und weicht damit vom guten Kind ab (hat dies befreit) • Kindl. Aggressionen wurden üblicherweise vorgeführt um sie auszutreiben, umgekehrt nahm Sendak die Perspektive seines Helden ein und gestattete ihm destruktive Fantasien auszuleben • Psychologisch und pädagogisch befreien die „Wilden Kerle“ die vom Zwang brav und angepasst zu sein • > Sendak brachte das tabuisierte Thema Gewalt ein und ergänzt bildnerische Fantasien - Dimensionen des Schreckens, des Monströsen usw. 6. Seit den 1980er Jahren spricht man von einer Öffnung der Bilderbücher. Worin besteht diese Öffnung? • Öffnung der Bilderbücher: Behandlung neuer Themen wie Trennung der Eltern, Holocaust, Kinderarmut, Demenz, Mobbing, Krieg etc. • z.B. „Böse Mann“ (Häusliche Gewalt) & Opas Engel (Holocaust) • wichtigste Entwicklungsphase für das Kinderbuch war die Zeit der 80er Jahre, die zum postmodernen Kinderbuch führten • Auflösen von Genregrenzen, Auflösen überkommener Adressatenkonzepte, Auflösung traditioneller Rezeptionsweisen durch die veränderte narrative Struktur 7. Welche Text-Bild-Relationen werden beim Bilderbuch unterschieden? 1. Parallelität - gemeinsames Erzählen von Bild und Text (durch durchdachte Text-Bild-Korrespondenz) 2. Geflochtener Zopf - abwechselndes Erzählen von Bild und Text (fast in jedem Bilderbuch lassen sich in der Antike dieser Form finde, da sich Text & Bild verbinden) 3. Kontrapunktisches Erzählen - widersprüchliches Erzählen von Bild und Text (Spannungsverhältnis zueinander)

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