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AP U.S. Government Midterm Study Guide UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY Topic 1.1: Ideals of Democracy Required Foundational Document: Declaration of Independence 1. Enlightenment Philosophical Foundations John Locke (Second Treatise of Civil Government): Natural law dictates that all individuals are born free and equal with natural rights (life, liberty, property). Government authority derives solely from the consent of the governed. If a government breaks the social contract or violates natural rights, citizens are obligated to alter or abolish it. Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan): Believed human nature in a state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short," resulting in anarchy. People surrender freedoms in a social contract to an absolute sovereign (Leviathan) in exchange for peace and social order. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract): Envisioned popular sovereignty—the people as the ultimate ruling authority—where free individuals abandon certain natural freedoms to form a body politic committed to the general good. Baron de Montesquieu (The Spirit of the Laws): Championed a republican government with defined, limited powers and advocated for the separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny. 2. Core Democratic Ideals & Foundational Documents Key Ideals: Natural rights, popular sovereignty, social contract, republicanism (electing representatives for a limited term to make laws in the public interest), and limited government (government restricted by law, checks, and balances). Declaration of Independence (1776): Authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson. Drafted by a committee of five (Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston). Provided a moral and legal justification for rebellion against King George III by arguing that abusive taxation and British tyranny violated natural rights and the social contract. U.S. Constitution (1787): Codified ideals of self-government, checks and balances, separation of powers, and majority rule balanced with minority rights into a functional blueprint for a representative republic. Topic 1.2: Types of Democracy Model of Democracy Core Definition & Characteristics Historical & Contemporary Examples Participatory Democracy Emphasizes broad, direct participation of citizens in politics and civil society. Citizens vote directly on laws rather than relying exclusively on elected representatives. Town hall meetings, state/local ballot initiatives (citizens place measures on ballot), referendums (citizens vote to approve/defeat legislative acts). Pluralist Democracy Non-governmental interest groups activate to compete for political influence in a "marketplace of ideas." Policymaking is a result of bargaining, negotiation, and compromise among diverse interest groups. Interest groups testifying at congressional hearings, filing lawsuits, lobbying (e.g., NRA, NAACP, NOW, AFL-CIO, environmental groups). Elite Democracy Elected representatives act as trustees for voters; power is concentrated among educated, wealthy, or well-resourced individuals who possess the expertise to govern wisely. The Electoral College choosing the President, lifetime appointments of federal judges, original election of U.S. Senators by state legislatures. Topic 1.3: Government Power and Individual Rights Required Foundational Documents: Federalist No. 10, Brutus No. 1 1. Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist Debate Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay): Supported ratifying the 1787 Constitution. Favored a strong central national government to maintain order, national security, and economic stability. Argued that a large, extended republic would protect individual rights by taming factions. Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry, George Mason, Robert Yates): Opposed the new Constitution. Feared a strong national executive would replicate a British monarch and warned that the "Necessary and Proper" and "Supremacy" clauses gave the national government unchecked power, threatening state sovereignty and individual rights. Demanded a Bill of Rights. 2. Required Document Comparison Feature Federalist No. 10 (James Madison) Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist Pseudonym) Central Argument A large, diverse representative republic is the best mechanism to control the "mischiefs of faction." A large, extended republic will destroy state sovereignty, erode individual liberty, and result in tyranny. View on Factions Factions are inevitable due to human nature. They cannot be eliminated without destroying liberty. Therefore, their effects must be controlled through a large republic where competing interest groups neutralize one another. In a large country, citizens' interests are too diverse ("clashing of opinions"), leading to constant legislative gridlock or government overreach to maintain order. Representation A large pool of voters ensures qualified, virtuous leaders are elected as representatives (trustees), insulating government from rash popular passion. Representatives in a large nation will be distant, unacquainted with local constituent needs, unaccountable, and prone to abuse their elevated power. Topic 1.4: Challenges of the Articles of Confederation Required Foundational Document: Articles of Confederation 1. Structure of Government Under the Articles (1781–1789) Unicameral Confederation Congress; each state possessed exactly one vote regardless of size or population. No executive branch to enforce national laws; no national judicial system to resolve disputes between states. Passing national legislation required approval by 9 of 13 states; amending the Articles required unanimous consent (13 of 13 states). 2. Key Weaknesses & Consequences Provision / Limitation Systemic Weakness & Impact No Direct Power to Tax Congress could only request funds from states. The national government faced immense Revolutionary War debt and could not pay foreign creditors or military veterans. No Power to Raise/Maintain a Standing Army The federal government relied on state militias and could not effectively secure national borders or suppress internal civil unrest. Inability to Regulate Interstate Commerce States imposed tariffs on goods from other states, issued conflicting paper currencies, and engaged in economic trade wars, paralyzing economic growth. Unanimity Amendment Requirement A single state (e.g., Rhode Island) could veto necessary tax reforms or constitutional adjustments, creating legislative paralysis. 3. Catalyst for Change: Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787) Impoverished Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led an armed insurrection of Massachusetts farmers facing mortgage foreclosures and high state taxes. The insurgents forcibly closed debt courts and attacked the Springfield federal arsenal. Because the national government lacked funds and an army, Massachusetts had to rely on a privately funded militia to suppress the rebellion. Significance: Exposed the dangerous weakness of the central government under the Articles of Confederation, convincing national leaders (such as Washington, Madison, and Hamilton) to convene the Philadelphia Convention in May 1787. Topic 1.5: Ratification of the U.S. Constitution Required Foundational Document: The Constitution of the United States 1. Constitutional Compromises Virginia Plan vs. New Jersey Plan: Virginia Plan (James Madison): Bicameral legislature with representation in both houses based on population; favored large states. New Jersey Plan (William Paterson): Unicameral legislature with equal representation (one state, one vote); preserved state sovereignty for small states. Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Authored by Roger Sherman. Created a bicameral Congress consisting of: House of Representatives: Apportioned by state population (appeased large states); directly elected by voters. Senate: Equal representation (2 senators per state, appeased small states); originally chosen by state legislatures. Three-Fifths Compromise: Agreed that three out of every five enslaved persons would count toward a state's total population for House representation and federal direct tax assessments. Slave Trade Compromise: Prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade for 20 years after ratification (until 1808) and included a fugitive slave extradition clause. Electoral College Compromise: Reconciled debates over whether Congress or direct popular vote should select the president. Each state chooses electors equal to its total congressional representation (House + Senate) to elect the executive. Commerce Compromise: Allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce and levy tariffs on imports, but prohibited taxing exports. 2. The Constitutional Framework (Articles I–VII) Article I: Legislative Branch (Structure, Enumerated Powers, Necessary & Proper Clause). Article II: Executive Branch (Qualifications, Commander-in-Chief, Executive Duties). Article III: Judicial Branch (Supreme Court and Inferior Federal Courts). Article IV: Relations Among States (Full Faith and Credit, Privileges and Immunities, Extradition). Article V: Amendment Process (Two-stage process requiring 2/3 vote in Congress/Conventions to propose, 3/4 state legislatures/conventions to ratify). Article VI: National Supremacy Clause (Constitution and federal laws are supreme law of the land). Article VII: Ratification procedure (Required approval by 9 of 13 state conventions). 3. Modern Policy Debates Over Central Power Individual Rights vs. National Security: USA PATRIOT Act (2001) expanded executive surveillance authority after 9/11, sparking Fourth Amendment privacy concerns. The USA FREEDOM Act (2015) curtailed bulk phone metadata collection. Education Policy: Federal legislation such as No Child Left Behind (2002) and Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) reflect ongoing tension between federal standard-setting and state control under the 10th Amendment. Topic 1.6: Principles of American Government Required Foundational Document: Federalist No. 51 1. Foundational Theory: Federalist No. 51 (James Madison) "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition": Human nature is prone to self-interest. To prevent tyranny, government authority must be divided among distinct branches, giving each branch the constitutional means and motives to check the others. Division of Legislative Power: Because legislative power naturally predominates in a republic, Madison argued for dividing Congress into two branches (House and Senate) with different election modes and responsibilities. Double Security of Federalism: Power is first divided between two distinct governments (federal and state) and then subdivided among three branches within each, providing multiple layers of protection for individual rights. 2. Practical Checks and Balances System Branch Possessing Power Constitutional Check Over Legislative Constitutional Check Over Executive Constitutional Check Over Judicial Legislative (Congress) Bicameralism (House and Senate check each other). Overriding vetoes (2/3 vote), power of the purse, impeachment (House) and trial/removal (Senate), Senate advice and consent on appointments/treaties. Senate confirmation of judges, impeachment/removal of federal judges, altering court size/jurisdiction, proposing constitutional amendments. Executive (President) Vetoing legislation, calling special sessions, pocket vetoes. Internal administrative oversight. Nominating federal judges, power to grant pardons and reprieves. Judicial (Courts) Declaring laws passed by Congress unconstitutional (Judicial Review). Declaring executive actions or orders unconstitutional (Judicial Review). Chief Justice presides over presidential impeachment trials in the Senate. Topic 1.7: Relationship Between the States and Federal Government 1. Constitutional Allocation of Powers Exclusive (Delegated/Expressed) Powers: Granted solely to the federal government (e.g., declaring war, coining money, regulating interstate commerce, conducting foreign diplomacy, defining naturalization). Reserved Powers (10th Amendment): Powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or the people (e.g., police powers—regulating health, safety, welfare, morals; operating schools; issuing licenses). Concurrent Powers: Powers shared by both national and state governments (e.g., levying taxes, enforcing laws, establishing court systems, borrowing money). 2. Fiscal Federalism & Financial Intergovernmental Relations Categorical Grants: Federal grants given to states for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict requirements ("strings attached"). Gives the federal government significant leverage over state policy (e.g., National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 tied highway funding to raising drinking age to 21, upheld in South Dakota v. Dole). Block Grants: Federal funds provided to states for broadly defined policy areas (e.g., community development, social services) with minimal federal conditions, granting states significant discretion (advocated during Devolution). Federal Mandates: Directives issued by the federal government requiring states to comply with national standards: Funded Mandates: Accompanied by federal financial aid. Unfunded Mandates: Requirements imposed without federal funding, forcing states to absorb compliance costs (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act [ADA] of 1990, Clean Air Act Amendments). Devolution: The political movement to transfer power and administration from the federal government back to state and local governments (popularized during the Reagan administration and the 104th Congress, leading to the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996). Topic 1.8: Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism Required Supreme Court Cases: McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), United States v. Lopez (1995) Required SCOTUS Cases Comparison Case Name McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) United States v. Lopez (1995) Constitutional Issue Necessary and Proper Clause (Art. I, Sec. 8); Supremacy Clause (Art. VI). Commerce Clause (Art. I, Sec. 8); 10th Amendment Reserved Powers. Essential Facts Congress chartered the Second Bank of the U.S. The state of Maryland levied a tax on the bank to drive it out of state. Cashier James McCulloch refused to pay. Alfonso Lopez carried a concealed firearm into a Texas high school and was charged under the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990. Holding / Decision Unanimous (6–0) for McCulloch. Congress has the authority to charter a bank; states cannot tax federal institutions. Majority (5–4) for Lopez. The Gun-Free School Zones Act is unconstitutional because gun possession in a school zone does not substantially affect interstate commerce. Constitutional Impact Established national supremacy and solidified implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause ("The power to tax involves the power to destroy"). Expanded federal authority. Marked a major shift toward Devolution and state rights. Restricted Congress's reliance on the Commerce Clause, re-establishing limits on federal power over local policing/education. Topic 1.9: Federalism in Action 1. Impact on Policymaking Multiple Access Points: Stakeholders, interest groups, and citizens can influence policy across multiple levels (local, state, national) and branches (executive, legislative, judicial). If a group fails at the federal level, it can pursue initiatives at the state level. Laboratories of Democracy: States can experiment with novel social and economic policies without risking the entire nation (e.g., marijuana legalization, environmental regulations, healthcare reform models). 2. Federal-State Policy Conflicts Environmental Policy: Federal laws like the Clean Air Act and international agreements (e.g., Paris Agreement) face friction when federal rules conflict with state industrial standards or state-led cap-and-trade initiatives. Marijuana Legalization: While cannabis remains a Schedule I illegal drug under federal law (Controlled Substances Act of 1970, upheld in Gonzales v. Raich), numerous states have legalized medical and recreational marijuana through direct ballot initiatives. Federal enforcement relies heavily on executive department discretion. UNIT 2: INTERACTIONS AMONG BRANCHES (CONGRESSIONAL BRANCH) Topic 2.1: Congress: Senate and House of Representatives Required Foundational Document: U.S. Constitution (Article I) Institutional Differences Between Houses Feature / Institutional Metric House of Representatives U.S. Senate Membership Size 435 members (apportioned by population via Reapportionment Act of 1929). 100 members (2 per state). Term Length & Cycles 2-year terms; entire House up for election every 2 years. 6-year terms; staggered elections (1/3 of Senate up every 2 years; continuous body). Constituency Local single-member congressional districts (~700,000+ constituents). State at-large voters (broad, diverse constituency). Qualifications At least 25 years old, U.S. citizen for 7 years, resident of state represented. At least 30 years old, U.S. citizen for 9 years, resident of state represented. Exclusive Powers Originates all revenue/tax bills, initiates impeachment charges, selects President if Electoral College ties. Advice and consent on presidential nominations and foreign treaties (2/3 vote), conducts impeachment trials (2/3 vote to convict/remove). Debate & Debate Structure Highly structured, formal, centralized. Strict time limits on debate controlled by the Rules Committee. Less formal, decentralized. Unlimited debate permitted (filibusters allowed unless stopped by cloture). Constitutional Amendment Impact 14th Amendment protection; original popular election preserved. 17th Amendment (1913): Shifted election of Senators from state legislatures to direct popular vote. Powers of Congress (Article I, Section 8) Power of the Purse: Authority to levy taxes, collect revenue, coin money, and pass statutory appropriations funding federal programs. Regulating Commerce: Power to regulate international and interstate trade (Commerce Clause). Foreign & Military Powers: Exclusive power to declare war, raise and fund armies/navies, regulate military draft, and pass the War Powers Act of 1973 (requiring president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and withdraw after 60 days unless authorized). Implied Powers: Authority grounded in the Necessary and Proper Clause to enact laws and execute delegated powers. Topic 2.2: Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress 1. Congressional Leadership System Speaker of the House: Only House leadership position mandated by Constitution. Elected by majority party; presides over House, assigns bills to committees, recognizes speakers, and influences legislative agenda. Floor Leaders (Majority/Minority Leaders): Lead debate for their respective parties, guide strategy, and serve as national party spokespersons. Whips (Majority/Minority Whips): Enforce party discipline, tally prospective votes, and persuade members to vote along party lines. President of the Senate: The Vice President of the U.S.; non-voting presiding officer except to break tie votes. President Pro Tempore: Senior member of Senate majority party; presides over Senate in VP's absence. Senate Majority Leader: Most powerful figure in the Senate. Sets legislative calendar, controls floor debate, and determines which bills reach the floor. 2. The Committee System Committee Type Primary Role & Function Standing Committees Permanent panels handling specific policy areas (e.g., House Ways and Means, Senate Judiciary, Armed Services). Conduct hearings, mark up bills, and perform legislative oversight. Select / Special Committees Temporary committees established for a specific, limited investigation or study (e.g., Select Committee on Benghazi, Watergate). Joint Committees Panels containing members from both House and Senate to coordinate routine administrative issues or long-term studies (e.g., Joint Committee on Taxation). Conference Committees Temporary compromise panels formed to reconcile differing versions of House and Senate bills into a single, identical draft before sending to the president. 3. Chamber-Specific Rules & Procedures House Rules Committee: Acts as the "traffic cop" of the House. Determines rules for floor debate (time limits, open vs. closed amendment rules) and schedules bills. Committee of the Whole (House): Procedure designed to relax House rules, speed up debate, and require a reduced quorum of only 100 members. Discharge Petition (House): A petition signed by a simple majority (218 members) that forces a stalled bill out of a reluctant committee onto the House floor for a vote. Filibuster & Cloture (Senate): Tactical delay weapon using unlimited debate to block action on a bill or nomination. Stopped only by a Cloture Motion (Rule 22) requiring a 3/5 supermajority (60 votes). Holds & Unanimous Consent (Senate): Hold: An informal request by a senator to delay or prevent a bill or nomination from reaching the floor. Unanimous Consent Agreement: Set procedure rules to speed up Senate business by bypassing formal rules with unanimous approval. 4. The Federal Budgetary Process Mandatory Spending: Spending required by existing law for entitlement programs (e.g., Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid). Consumes over 60% of federal budget. Discretionary Spending: Spending that congressional committees debate and alter annually (e.g., defense spending, education, transportation). Deficit & National Debt: A budget deficit occurs when federal expenditures exceed federal tax revenue in a fiscal year. Accumulated annual deficits constitute the overall National Debt. Pork-Barrel Spending & Earmarks: Congressional add-ons to bills that direct federal funding to specific local projects in a member's district. Often attached to broader Omnibus ("Christmas Tree") Bills. Logrolling: The practice of trading votes among members of Congress to secure passage of individual legislative priorities. Topic 2.3: Congressional Behavior Required Supreme Court Cases: Baker v. Carr (1962), Shaw v. Reno (1993) 1. Member Voting Models Delegate Model: Lawmakers vote strictly according to the expressed desires of their constituents. Trustee Model: Lawmakers use their independent judgment, expertise, and moral conscience to make policy decisions, even if it contradicts constituent desires. Politico Model: A hybrid approach where lawmakers vote as delegates on high-profile issues with clear constituent consensus, but act as trustees on complex, low-visibility issues. 2. Gerrymandering & Redistricting Dynamics Reapportionment & Redistricting: Every 10 years following the U.S. Census, seats in the House are reapportioned. State legislatures redraw congressional district boundaries. Partisan Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to give one political party an unfair advantage, creating a large number of "safe seats" (districts where a party consistently wins by 55%+). This practice leads to increased political polarization, as members fear primary challenges from ideologically extreme opponents ("getting primaried"). 3. Required SCOTUS Redistricting Cases Case Name Baker v. Carr (1962) Shaw v. Reno (1993) Constitutional Issue 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause (Urban vs. Rural Apportionment). 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause (Racial Gerrymandering). Essential Facts Tennessee failed to redraw its state legislative districts for over 60 years. Population growth in urban areas created massive population disparities between rural and urban districts, diluting urban votes. North Carolina created a wildly irregular, 160-mile majority-black district ("I-85 District") to comply with Justice Department demands for additional minority representation. White voters challenged the map. Holding / Decision 6–2 for Baker. Apportionment and redistricting claims are justiciable in federal court (not merely political questions). 5–4 for Shaw. Redistricting plans that cannot be explained on grounds other than race are subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause. Constitutional Impact Established the landmark "One Person, One Vote" principle, requiring legislative districts within a state to contain roughly equal populations. Prohibited race from being the predominant factor in drawing district lines, restricting racial gerrymandering even if intended to benefit minority representation. 4. Divided Government & Institutional Gridlock Divided Government: Occurs when one political party controls the White House and the opposing party controls one or both houses of Congress. Impacts: Causes policy gridlock, increases legislative stalemates, slows down statutory confirmation of presidential appointments, and heightens conflict during Supreme Court judicial nominations (e.g., blocking "lame duck" judicial nominees).

Unit 3 Northwest Territory: Location - The region south of the Great Lakes, north and west of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River (modern-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) Settlement expectations - Orderly Grid System: Land was grid-surveyed into square townships (36 square miles) to prevent chaotic land claims. Section 16 of each township was reserved to fund public education. Path to Statehood: Established a 3-stage process for territories to achieve statehood on equal footing with the original 13 states once they reached 60,000 free inhabitants. Civil Liberties & Prohibitions: Guaranteed trial by jury and freedom of religion. Crucially, it banned slavery north of the Ohio River, setting the first federal geographic boundary on the institution. Articles of Confederation: structure of government - A unicameral (one-house) legislature. There was no executive branch (no president to enforce laws) and no national judiciary to settle interstate legal conflicts. importance of Congress - Congress was the sole body of national power. Each state received exactly one vote, meaning small states held equal power to large states Weaknesses - No power to tax: Congress could only request money from states. No power to regulate commerce: Led to interstate tariff wars. Rigid thresholds: Passing major laws required a 9/13 supermajority; amending the Articles required a 13/13 unanimous vote. No standing national army: Left the government defenseless against foreign threats or domestic rebellion. Shay’s Rebellion: Causes - Western Massachusetts farmers (many Revolutionary War veterans) faced heavy state taxes, severe post-war economic depression, and foreclosures on their farms by coastal merchants and courts. Led by Daniel Shays, they shut down debt courts. Outcomes - The weak central government was unable to raise an army to suppress the rebellion; a privately funded state militia finally stopped it. This exposed the profound weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, spreading fear of "mobocracy" among elites and directly prompting the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Whiskey Rebellion: Causes - Poor western Pennsylvania farmers protested an excise tax on whiskey enacted by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to pay off national war debts. Whiskey was used as currency and a primary way to market surplus grain. Unique elements - Unlike Shays' Rebellion, President George Washington invoked his new constitutional powers and personally led a massive federalized militia of 13,000 troops to crush the insurrection. Effects - Demonstrating the immense contrast with Shays' Rebellion, it proved that the new federal government under the Constitution possessed the executive power to enforce federal laws and suppress domestic insurrections. It solidified federal authority but alienated westerners, bolstering the nascent Democratic-Republican opposition. Structure of US Government under Constitution – separation of power - Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces laws), and Judicial (interprets laws) checks and balances - A system allowing branches to limit the actions of others. Examples: The President can veto congressional legislation; Congress can override a veto or impeach the President; the Senate must approve judicial nominations. Federalism - The constitutional division and sharing of political power between the national (federal) government and the individual state governments. popular sovereignty - The principle that political power resides with the people, who sustain government legitimacy through consent via elected representatives. supremacy clause - Article VI; Establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties constitute the "supreme law of the land," overriding conflicting state laws. Issue of slavery: who supported - Southern delegates (e.g., South Carolina, Georgia) fiercely protected slavery as vital to their agrarian, plantation economies. who opposed - Many Northern delegates opposed slavery or its expansion, but prioritized national unity and economic concessions over immediate abolition. position taken by the Founders - The Founders chose pragmatic compromise over moral resolution to keep the Southern states in the Union. They conspicuously avoided using the words "slave" or "slavery" in the text but protected the institution through: Three-Fifths Compromise: Counted 60% of a state’s enslaved population for both congressional representation and federal taxation. Slave Trade Clause: Prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade for 20 years (until 1808). Fugitive Slave Clause: Required free states to return escaped enslaved laborers to their owners. Concepts debated by Federalist and Anti-Federalists during and after Washington’s presidency; be familiar with people associated with each party Era/Context Federalists Anti-Federalists/Democratic-Republicans Ratification Debate (1787-1788) Supported the Constitution. Wanted a strong central government to maintain order. Written defenses: The Federalist Papers. Opposed the Constitution. Feared a strong central government would mimic British tyranny and squash individual rights. Demanded a Bill of Rights. First Party System (1790s) Federalist Party Democratic-Republican Party Key Leaders Alexander Hamilton, John Adams. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison. Constitutional Interpretation Loose constructionism (broad use of the "elastic/necessary and proper" clause). Strict constructionism (the federal government only has powers explicitly stated in the Constitution). Core Vision Urban, commercial, manufacturing hub; pro-British foreign policy; favored a National Bank. Agrarian republic of independent farmers; pro-French foreign policy; opposed the National Bank. John Adams’ Domestic and Foreign Policy – Naturalization Act, Alien and Sedition Acts, XYZ Affair XYZ Affair (1797): French privateers began seizing American merchant ships. Adams sent diplomats to Paris, where three French agents (dubbed X, Y, and Z) demanded massive bribes before negotiating. This sparked anti-French outrage across America and triggered the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war. Naturalization Act (1798): Increased the residency requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years. This was designed to target French and Irish immigrants, who heavily voted Democratic-Republican. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Alien Act: Authorized the president to deport any non-citizen deemed dangerous to national peace. Sedition Act: Made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. Adams used it to jail Democratic-Republican newspaper editors. Marbury v. Madison, McCullough v. Maryland Marbury v. Madison (1803): Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 conflicted with the Constitution. This established the doctrine of Judicial Review, cementing the Supreme Court's power to declare federal laws unconstitutional. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States. The Marshall Court ruled that: The Bank was constitutional via the Implied Powers of the Necessary and Proper Clause. States cannot tax federal institutions ("the power to tax involves the power to destroy"), reaffirming Federal Supremacy. Short Answer: (These are all straight from google overview, just as an fyi) a) Explain the concerns for the nation Washington expressed in his Farewell Address and how they became issues during and immediately following his terms in office. In his 1796 Farewell Address, George Washington explicitly warned the young nation against two main existential threats: the rise of factions (political parties) and entering into permanent foreign alliances. Despite his warnings, both issues immediately fractured the nation during and after his presidency. Domestically, the fierce ideological rift between Alexander Hamilton’s Federalists and Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans hardened into America’s first permanent political party system. Externally, the ongoing geopolitical conflict of the French Revolution forced America to take sides. While Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation in 1793, foreign entanglements escalated under John Adams, whose administration was consumed by the XYZ Affair and the resulting Quasi-War with France. b) Evaluate the issues associated with Adams’ Alien and Sedition Acts. The primary constitutional and political issue of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 was their weaponization for partisan suppression, which directly violated civil liberties. The Sedition Act explicitly restricted freedom of speech and the press by criminalizing criticism of the federal government, drawing widespread condemnation for violating the First Amendment. Furthermore, Federalists utilized these acts to aggressively target their political opponents, arresting Democratic-Republican editors who criticized Adams’ anti-French foreign policies. In response to this perceived federal tyranny, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison anonymously penned the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. These documents introduced the radical constitutional theory of nullification, arguing that sovereign states had the right to declare federal laws null and void within their borders, setting a dangerous precedent for future states' rights crises. LEQ – Be able to analyze the 4 areas of concern presented at the Constitutional Convention, including the arguments made by Federalists and Anti-Federalists, as well as the agreements reached that were included in the Constitution. Thesis Statement: Although delegates at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 originally gathered to revise the weak Articles of Confederation, deep regional divides over representation, state power, and economic structure forced intense debates between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Ultimately, the framework of the new Constitution succeeded because delegates forged pragmatic compromises over congressional representation, executive authority, the preservation of slavery, and federal taxes. Area of Concern 1: Congressional Representation (Large vs. Small States) Debate: Large states favored the Virginia Plan (proportional representation based on population); small states demanded the New Jersey Plan (equal representation per state). Agreement: The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) established a bicameral legislature. The House of Representatives based representation on population, while the Senate granted two seats per state. Area of Concern 2: Counting the Population (Northern vs. Southern States) Debate: Southern states demanded enslaved individuals be counted to boost their legislative seat totals but excluded for federal tax purposes. Northern states argued this was unjust since enslaved populations lacked civil rights. Agreement: The Three-Fifths Compromise dictated that three out of every five enslaved individuals would be counted for both representation and taxation. Area of Concern 3: Executive Branch Power Debate: Anti-Federalists feared a strong executive would morph into a monarchy. Federalists argued a strong executive was vital to enforce laws and avoid the chaos seen in Shays’ Rebellion. Agreement: The creation of a single executive (the President) checked by congressional override powers, impeachment processes, and elected indirectly via the Electoral College. Area of Concern 4: Central Power vs. Individual Rights (The Ratification Pivot) Debate: Anti-Federalists refused to ratify the document because it centralized immense power under the Supremacy Clause without explicitly protecting individual liberties. Federalists argued that separation of powers inherently protected individuals. Agreement: Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights immediately upon ratification, which James Madison drafted during the First Congress to safeguard civil liberties against federal overreach.