religion: maturation

Englisch mündliche Matura Vocabulary

Słowa do powtórki 3.06.26 (Matura podstawowa)

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Literature Final Exam Study Guide The Wednesday Wars by The Wednesday Wars Author * Written by Gary D. Schmidt Protagonist * Holling Hoodhood * A seventh-grade student. * Feels misunderstood by his father and teacher. * Learns responsibility, courage, and empathy throughout the novel. Setting (Time and Place) * Time: 1967–1968 during the Vietnam War era. * Place: Long Island, New York (fictional town of Camillo Junior High). Main Characters & Roles Mrs. Baker * Holling’s teacher. * At first Holling thinks she hates him. * Eventually becomes a mentor and supporter. * Makes Holling read Shakespeare. Danny Hupfer * Holling’s friend. * Funny and loyal. Meryl Lee Kowalski * Holling’s classmate and friend. * Kind and supportive. * Performs in plays with Holling. Mai Thi * Vietnamese refugee student. * Symbolizes the effects of the Vietnam War. Mr. Hoodhood * Holling’s father. * Strict and focused on business reputation. * Has a strained relationship with Holling. Heather Hoodhood * Holling’s sister. * Becomes involved in anti-war protests. * Supportive of Holling. ⸻ Major Events in the Novel Shakespeare Lessons * Holling spends Wednesday afternoons with Mrs. Baker reading Shakespeare. * The lessons connect to events in Holling’s life. Field Trips & School Events * School activities often become embarrassing or chaotic for Holling. Cross-Country Running * Holling discovers confidence and talent through running. The Play * Holling acts in Shakespeare performances. * Learns teamwork and self-confidence. Rats in the School * Holling must help catch escaped rats. * Creates funny and stressful situations. Vietnam War Connections * Mai Thi’s family and soldiers from the town show the war’s impact. Bonding with Mrs. Baker * Their relationship changes from distrust to respect and care. Family Tension * Holling struggles with his father’s expectations and lack of emotional support. ⸻ Holling and His Father * Mr. Hoodhood values business success more than Holling’s feelings. * Holling feels pressured to obey and succeed. * Their relationship is strained because: * Mr. Hoodhood rarely listens to Holling. * He cares deeply about appearances and business deals. * Holling wants independence and understanding. * By the end, Holling grows stronger and more confident despite his father’s pressure. ⸻ To Kill a Mockingbird by To Kill a Mockingbird Author * Written by Harper Lee Setting * Place: Maycomb, Alabama. * Time: The 1930s during the Great Depression. How Many Years Does the Book Cover? * About 3 years. What Happened to Scout’s Mom? * Scout’s mother died when Scout was very young. Town Sheriff * Heck Tate is the sheriff of Maycomb. ⸻ Important Characters Scout Finch * Narrator and main character. * Curious, intelligent, and tomboyish. Jem Finch * Scout’s older brother. * Matures throughout the novel. Atticus Finch * Scout and Jem’s father. * Lawyer who defends Tom Robinson. * Symbol of morality and justice. Walter Cunningham * Poor but honorable boy from the Cunningham family. Boo Radley * Reclusive neighbor. * Secretly watches over Jem and Scout. * Saves them at the end. Miss Maudie * Wise and kind neighbor. * Supports Atticus. Heck Tate * Sheriff of Maycomb. * Protects Boo Radley at the end. Mrs. Dubose * Elderly woman with a bad temper. * Secretly fighting morphine addiction. Mr. Link Deas * Tom Robinson’s employer. * Defends Tom’s character. Uncle Jack * Atticus’s brother. * Doctor. Dolphus Raymond * Pretends to be drunk to give society an explanation for his lifestyle. Bob Ewell * Racist and abusive father of Mayella. * Main antagonist. Mayella Ewell * Accuses Tom Robinson of assault. * Lonely and abused. Little Chuck Little * Student who helps Scout understand school rules. Lula * Woman at First Purchase Church who questions Scout and Jem being there. Zeebo * Calpurnia’s son. * Leads singing at church. Cousin Francis * Insults Atticus, causing Scout to fight him. Mr. Underwood * Newspaper editor who supports justice. Burris Ewell * Dirty and rude Ewell child. * Bullies the teacher. ⸻ Major Events & Important Questions Atticus’ Final Arguments * Atticus argues Tom Robinson is innocent. * Explains the Ewells are lying. * Says prejudice influenced the case. Tom Robinson and Mayella * Mayella kissed Tom Robinson. * Bob Ewell saw this and became angry. * Tom was falsely accused because of racism. Why Jem Destroys Mrs. Dubose’s Camellias * Mrs. Dubose insults Atticus. * Jem becomes angry and destroys her flowers. Why Jem Goes to Mrs. Dubose’s House * As punishment, Jem must read to her daily. * He learns about courage and addiction. Jem and Scout in the Courtroom * They secretly watch Tom Robinson’s trial from the balcony with the Black community. Mr. Cunningham at the Jail * A mob tries to hurt Tom Robinson. * Scout talks politely to Mr. Cunningham. * The mob leaves peacefully. Who Scout Confides In After a Fight * Scout often talks with Atticus or Miss Maudie after problems. What Happens on Christmas Day at Finch’s Landing * Scout fights Cousin Francis after he insults Atticus. Crimes Bob Ewell Has Committed * Abuse, lying under oath, intimidation, and attacking Jem and Scout. Why Is It a Sin to Kill Mockingbirds? * Mockingbirds symbolize innocence. * They do no harm and only bring beauty. Characters That Symbolize Mockingbirds * Tom Robinson * Boo Radley * Sometimes Scout and Jem Who Saves Jem and Scout? * Boo Radley saves them from Bob Ewell. What Happens to Tom Robinson? * He is convicted unfairly. * Later shot and killed while trying to escape prison. Tom Robinson Trial * Shows racism and injustice in Maycomb. * Despite evidence of innocence, Tom is convicted. Why Miss Maudie Moves in with Miss Stephanie * Miss Maudie’s house burns down. Scout’s Halloween Costume * She wears a ham costume. Symbolic Significance of the Mockingbird * Represents innocent people harmed by evil or prejudice. * Main theme: protect innocence and goodness. ⸻ Important Themes for Both Novels Courage * Standing up for what is right even when it is difficult. Growing Up * Characters learn maturity and understanding. Prejudice and Judgment * Both novels explore unfair assumptions about people. Family Relationships * Parent-child relationships strongly affect the characters. Empathy * Understanding others’ perspectives is important in both stories

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What are the two religions born in the 5th century BCE? / Jainism and Buddhism What was the Vedic Era known for? / The beginning of Vedic religious beliefs and rituals recorded in the Vedas What were the Vedas? / Sacred Sanskrit scriptures and collections of hymns considered sources of knowledge Who were the Vedic people? / Pastoral people living in the Punjab region What materials did Vedic people mainly use? / Wood, clay, bamboo, and other temporary materials What was yajna? / A fire sacrifice ritual performed to please natural deities Did Vedic religion require temples or idols? / No, rituals were performed without temples or iconography What type of religion was early Vedic faith? / A naturalistic polytheistic religion Why were there many gods in Vedic religion? / Because each natural phenomenon had its own deity Who performed yajna rituals? / Priests called yajaka Who was the yajmana? / The patron or benefactor for whom the yajna was performed What was Varna? / The caste system in Vedic society What does Varna mean? / Color or kind Why is Vedic religion also called Brahmanism? / Because Brahmin priests held great importance What is Hinduism described as in the notes? / A broad term covering many religious systems, sects, and cults Which Veda is considered the oldest? / Rig Veda How were the Vedas passed down originally? / Through oral tradition What problem occurred because of oral transmission of the Vedas? / Chronological and dating errors What did the later Vedas mainly contain? / Sacrificial instructions, magic formulas, and spells What was the Shramanic tradition? / A movement opposing Vedic beliefs and Brahmanism Who were the Shramanas? / Ascetics and wanderers searching for ultimate truth What does Shramana mean? / Striving and working hard through austerity Why did Shramanas leave their homes? / To search for truth about life and the universe Which Shramanic traditions survived into modern times? / Buddhism and Jainism What does Jainism believe in? / Eternal souls and extreme austerities for liberation What does Buddhism believe in? / Impermanence, nonexistence of soul, and the middle path What is the Buddhist middle path? / A moderate path avoiding extremes to achieve Nirvana Why did Buddhism spread more widely than Jainism? / Buddhism became missionary and spread across Asia Why did Jainism remain limited mainly to India? / Because it lacked missionary expansion What political factor helped Buddhism rise? / Changing political conditions in South Asia What material change occurred during the Mauryan period? / A shift from perishable materials to stone and durable materials How did Alexander’s invasion affect South Asia? / It introduced foreign artistic and cultural influences Who founded the Maurya Empire? / Chandragupta Maurya Who was Seleucus Nicator? / A Greek general of Alexander the Great Who was Megasthenes? / A Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court Who expanded the Mauryan Empire into the Deccan? / Bindusara Who was Ashoka? / The grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and a major Buddhist ruler What event changed Ashoka’s attitude toward violence? / The War of Kalinga How did Ashoka react after the Kalinga War? / He felt deep regret for violence What did Ashoka reportedly build after embracing Buddhism? / Thousands of stupas What were Ashoka’s edicts? / Inscriptions spread across his empire promoting moral teachings What is the Lion Capital of Sarnath? / A famous Mauryan sculpture and symbol of authority Which foreign styles influenced Mauryan art? / Achaemenid Persian and Greek styles What is Mauryan polish? / A smooth, shiny finish used on Mauryan sculptures and pillars Why do some Mauryan sculptures appear highly developed? / Because Persian or Persian-trained craftsmen likely worked on them What medium remained continuously used in South Asia since Harappan times? / Terracotta What kinds of objects were commonly made from terracotta? / Sculpture, pottery, toys, and ornaments What are Yakshas and Yakshis? / Nature spirits associated with fertility and prosperity What issue exists with dating Mauryan sculptures? / Many sculptures are difficult to date accurately What do Mauryan male statues resemble stylistically? / Wood carving traditions What architectural tradition began with rock-cut caves? / The long tradition of rock-cut architecture in South Asia What inspired early rock-cut caves? / Persian cave traditions and wooden architecture What was special about the Sanchi Stupa during the Shunga period? / Decorative yakshi carvings and mature relief work were added What were yakshis associated with? / Fertility and nature worship What artistic style characterized Shunga reliefs? / Shallow relief inspired by wood carving What are Jataka tales? / Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha What symbols represented Buddha before his human image appeared? / Wheels, Bodhi trees, footprints, and empty thrones What does the term “Early Classic” describe? / The artistic maturity of Shunga and Andh

Matura prep English 2026

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Ispitni katalog eksterne mature - Behram-begova medresa

Philosophy Exam 1 ⸻ Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) 1. Id – Ego – Superego Freud explains personality as a system of three interacting structures that are in constant conflict. * Id The id is entirely unconscious and represents instinctual drives such as aggression, hunger, and sexual desire. It operates on the pleasure principle, meaning it demands immediate satisfaction without considering reality, morality, or consequences. It is irrational and purely driven by biological impulses. * Ego The ego develops to mediate between the id and external reality. It operates on the reality principle, meaning it tries to satisfy instinctual desires in realistic and socially acceptable ways. It uses reasoning, planning, and delayed gratification. It is partly conscious and responsible for decision-making. * Superego The superego represents internalized moral values and social rules learned from parents and society. It judges behaviour and produces feelings of guilt or pride depending on whether actions align with moral standards. It often conflicts with the id by imposing strict moral constraints. Key idea: personality results from the continuous tension between instinct (id), reality (ego), and morality (superego). ⸻ 2. Defence Mechanisms Defence mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between the id, superego, and reality. They distort perception in order to protect the individual from psychological discomfort. * Repression Unacceptable thoughts or memories are pushed into the unconscious and become inaccessible, although they may still influence behaviour indirectly. * Denial The individual refuses to accept a painful or threatening reality. * Projection The person attributes their own unacceptable feelings or impulses to others. * Displacement Emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer target. * Rationalization The individual creates false but logical explanations for behaviour in order to avoid guilt or anxiety. * Reaction Formation An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite behaviour. * Regression Under stress, the individual returns to earlier, more childish patterns of behaviour. * Sublimation Unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable or productive activities. * Intellectualization Emotional situations are dealt with through abstract or logical thinking to avoid confronting feelings. * Compensation The individual develops strengths in one area to make up for weaknesses in another. * Identification The person adopts the traits or behaviours of another individual to reduce anxiety or increase self-esteem. * Undoing The person attempts to symbolically cancel out unacceptable thoughts or actions through corrective behaviour. Key idea: defence mechanisms are automatic, unconscious, and protect the ego by distorting reality. ⸻ 3. Psychosexual Stages Freud argues that personality develops through stages where psychic energy (libido) is focused on different parts of the body. Fixation at a stage can influence adult personality. * Oral stage (0–1): pleasure through feeding; fixation may lead to dependence or oral habits. * Anal stage (1–3): focus on control and toilet training; fixation may lead to orderliness or messiness. * Phallic stage (3–6): development of gender identity and early moral awareness; family dynamics are central. * Latency stage (6–puberty): sexual energy is dormant; focus on learning and social development. * Genital stage (puberty onward): mature sexuality and adult relationships. Key idea: early childhood experiences strongly shape adult personality. ⸻ René Descartes 1. Dualism Descartes argues that reality is composed of two fundamentally different substances: * Mind (res cogitans): non-physical substance responsible for thinking, consciousness, reasoning, and doubt. * Body (res extensa): physical substance that occupies space and follows mechanical laws. Although distinct, mind and body interact, creating the mind–body problem of how two different substances can influence each other. Key idea: humans are composed of both mental and physical substances that are fundamentally different. ⸻ 2. Rationalism Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, more reliable than sensory experience. Descartes argues that the senses can deceive us through illusions and dreams, so knowledge must be based on clear and distinct ideas produced by reason. He uses methodic doubt, systematically doubting all uncertain beliefs until reaching something absolutely certain. Key idea: reliable knowledge must come from reason rather than the senses. ⸻ 3. Cogito: “I think therefore I am” Descartes establishes that even radical doubt proves existence. If he is doubting, he must be thinking; if he is thinking, he must exist as a thinking being. Key idea: the act of thinking guarantees the existence of the self. ⸻ Plato 1. Ideal Society Plato’s political philosophy divides society into three classes corresponding to parts of the human soul: * Rulers (philosopher-kings): guided by reason and wisdom; they govern society. * Guardians: guided by courage; they protect and defend the state. * Producers: guided by desire; they provide material goods and services. Justice occurs when each class performs its proper function without interfering in the roles of others. Key idea: social justice is harmony through specialization and proper role distribution. ⸻ 2. Theory of Forms Plato distinguishes between two levels of reality: * The physical world: constantly changing, imperfect, and perceived through the senses. * The world of Forms: eternal, perfect, and unchanging essences such as Beauty, Justice, and Equality. Physical objects are imperfect copies of these perfect Forms. Key idea: true knowledge is knowledge of eternal Forms, not sensory appearances. ⸻ 3. Allegory of the Cave Plato describes prisoners chained in a cave who see only shadows and believe them to be reality. One prisoner escapes and discovers the real world illuminated by the sun, which represents truth. When he returns, the others reject him. Key idea: education is the process of moving from illusion to truth, which is difficult and often resisted. ⸻ Francis Bacon 1. Four Idols of the Mind Bacon identifies four sources of systematic error in human thinking: * Idols of the Tribe: universal human biases in perception and reasoning. * Idols of the Cave: individual biases shaped by personal experience and education. * Idols of the Marketplace: errors caused by language and communication. * Idols of the Theatre: blind acceptance of philosophical systems and traditions. Key idea: human reasoning is naturally flawed and must be corrected through scientific method. ⸻ 2. Empiricism Empiricism is the theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation. Bacon argues that scientific knowledge must be based on experimentation, data collection, and systematic observation rather than pure reasoning. Key idea: knowledge is grounded in experience, not abstract speculation. ⸻ 3. Induction vs Deduction Induction is reasoning from specific observations to general laws. Deduction is reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions. Bacon emphasizes induction as the foundation of scientific knowledge because it is based on empirical evidence. Key idea: science progresses by building general laws from observed facts. ⸻ Friedrich Nietzsche 1. “God is Dead” Nietzsche argues that modern science and secular thinking have undermined the authority of traditional religion as a source of meaning and morality. This leads to a cultural crisis in which old values collapse without being replaced. Key idea: the loss of religious authority creates a crisis of meaning. ⸻ 2. Nihilism Passive nihilism refers to despair and the belief that life has no meaning. Active nihilism refers to the rejection of old values in order to create new ones. Key idea: nihilism represents both the breakdown of meaning and the possibility of creating new values. ⸻ 3. Übermensch The Übermensch is the ideal individual who creates their own values, rejects conformity, embraces life fully, and overcomes traditional moral systems. Key idea: humans must move beyond inherited values and become creators of meaning. ⸻ Charles Darwin 1. Natural Selection Evolution occurs through natural selection. Individuals within a species vary, and those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Over time, these traits become more common in the population. Key idea: evolution is driven by survival advantage rather than purposeful design. ⸻ 2. Morality (Evolutionary view) Darwin argues that morality is not divine but evolved through natural processes. Humans developed social instincts such as empathy and cooperation because these traits improved survival within groups. Key idea: morality is a product of biological and social evolution