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4. Metals and Non-metals Learning Objectives By the end of the lesson, you will be able to: ☑ distinguish between metals and non-metals ☑ describe the physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals ☑ list the uses of some metals and non-metals MINERALS AND ORES You have learnt that all materials Here is the exact text from the image:are made up of basic substances called elements, and that elements cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical methods. There are 118 known elements. Sodium, zinc, gold, mercury, iron, lead, barium and tin (metals); and hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, boron, neon and radon (non-metals) are some examples. Only certain unreactive elements are found free in nature. Others occur in combined states as minerals. A mineral is a solid inorganic substance that is found in nature. A mineral deposit that can be mined and from which an element or compound can be obtained profitably is known as an ore. Elements can be broadly classified into two groups—metals and non-metals. Table 4.1 Some common ores Fig. 4.1 Some common ores a. Bauxite (aluminium) b. Malachite (copper) c. Haematite (iron) d. Galena (lead) e. Apatite (phosphorus) f. Quartz (silicon) -- --- METALS All except 20 of the known elements are metals. Most metals are reactive; they combine with other elements in nature, such as oxygen and sulphur, and occur as oxides, sulphides and carbonates. Only a few unreactive metals like gold, silver and platinum are found as free metals in the Earth's crust. Physical Properties of Metals Metals are solids at room temperature, except mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature (Fig. 4.2(a)). They are generally hard and strong, with a few exceptions such as sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be easily cut with a knife (Fig. 4.2(b)). They have a metallic lustre (shine), especially when freshly cut. They have high melting and boiling points, with a few exceptions like sodium, potassium and mercury. They are good conductors of heat and electricity. Silver and copper are the best conductors of electricity, followed by gold and aluminium. Metals are sonorous. They produce a ringing sound when struck. Most metals have high tensile strength. They can take heavy loads without breaking. They are malleable. Metals, with exceptions like sodium and potassium, can be beaten into thin sheets and foils. They are ductile. Metals, with exception like sodium and potassium, can be drawn into wires. Most metals have high density. However, sodium and potassium have low density and float on water. Fig. 4.2 Special metals a. Mercury b. Sodium --- Chemical Properties of Metals Reaction with oxygen Metals react with oxygen under different conditions to form basic oxides. These basic oxides react with water to form bases. Sodium and potassium react vigorously with oxygen at room temperature. 4Na + O_2 \rightarrow 2Na_2O To prevent this oxidation, sodium and potassium are stored under kerosene. Magnesium reacts with oxygen only when ignited. It burns with a dazzling bright flame and forms a white powder of magnesium oxide. 2Mg + O_2 \rightarrow 2MgO Copper and iron react with oxygen only when heated to a very high temperature. 2Cu + O_2 \rightarrow 2CuO --- --- Reaction with water Metals react with water to form hydroxides or oxides, along with hydrogen. Different metals react at different temperatures. Sodium, potassium, and calcium react with cold water to form hydroxides. 2Na + 2H_2O \rightarrow 2NaOH + H_2 Magnesium Reacts with steam or hot water to form magnesium oxide. Mg + H_2O \rightarrow MgO + H_2 Aluminium Forms an oxide too, but this oxide forms a protective covering over the metal and prevents further reactions. 2Al + 3H_2O \rightarrow Al_2O_3 + 3H_2 Zinc Reacts only with steam. Zn + H_2O \rightarrow ZnO + H_2 Iron Reacts with steam when heated strongly. 2Fe + 3H_2O \rightarrow Fe_3O_4 + 3H_2 Copper, gold, silver, and platinum do not react with water at all. --- Activity 4.1 Teacher Demonstration Aim: To study the reaction of metals with water. [Caution: This activity should be demonstrated by the teacher, and students should stand away from the table.] Materials required: Two 200 mL beakers Pieces of sodium and calcium Forceps Knife Litmus papers Water Method: 1. Fill each beaker with 100 mL of water. 2. Using forceps and a knife, cut a small piece of sodium. 3. Dry it on a tissue paper and drop it into one of the beakers. 4. Repeat the same procedure with calcium. 5. Test the water in both the beakers with red and blue litmus papers. Observations and Conclusions: Sodium reacts vigorously and may explode. A gas is also released. The reaction with calcium is quick, though not as vigorous as that with sodium. In both cases, the red litmus paper turns blue, showing that the solutions are bases. --- Reaction with dilute acids Most metals react with dilute acids to form their salts and liberate hydrogen gas. The reaction with reactive metals like sodium, potassium, and calcium is violent. Magnesium, aluminium, zinc, and iron do not react violently. Mg + 2HCl \rightarrow MgCl_2 + H_2 Copper, silver, gold, and platinum do not react with dilute acids. --- Reaction with bases Only some metals such as aluminium and zinc react with strong bases like sodium hydroxide to liberate hydrogen gas. Zn + 2NaOH \rightarrow Na_2ZnO_2 + H_2 --- Activity 4.2 Aim: To study the reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid. Materials required: Sandpaper Six test tubes Dilute hydrochloric acid Strips of magnesium, zinc, iron, tin, lead, and copper Method: 1. Clean the metal strips with sandpaper. 2. Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the six test tubes. 3. Insert a strip of metal into each test tube. Observe if any bubbles are formed in the test tubes. If no bubbles are seen, warm them gently in a beaker of hot water. 4. Observe the speed at which gas is generated. This gives an idea of the speed of the reaction. 5. Classify the metals in order of their reactivity with dilute hydrochloric acid. [Caution: Acids are corrosive and should be handled carefully.] --- Activity 4.3 Aim: To study the reaction of metals with bases. Materials required: Small piece of zinc Beaker Sodium hydroxide Method: 1. Prepare warm sodium hydroxide or caustic soda solution. 2. Drop the piece of zinc into it. Observations and Conclusions: You will notice that zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide to liberate hydrogen gas. Observations on Metals with Dilute Acids Metals like sodium, potassium, and calcium react violently with dilute acids to liberate hydrogen gas. Magnesium, aluminium, zinc, and iron also displace hydrogen from dilute acids, but the reaction is not violent. Metals such as copper, silver, gold, and platinum do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids. --- Activity Series of Metals The activity series of metals is the arrangement of metals in decreasing order of reactivity. The series in the book shows reactivity decreasing from top to bottom. Potassium is the most reactive metal while gold is the least reactive. --- Displacement of a Metal by Other Metals A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compounds in an aqueous solution. Some examples: Mg + CuSO_4 \rightarrow MgSO_4 + Cu Zn + FeSO_4 \rightarrow ZnSO_4 + Fe Iron can displace copper from copper sulphate solution (as shown in Activity 4.4). The solution turns green, and reddish-brown copper deposits on the iron nail. Copper cannot displace iron from iron sulphate solution, showing that copper is less reactive than iron. Cu + FeSO_4 \rightarrow \text{No reaction} Question: What do you think will happen if you place a silver spoon in copper sulphate solution? --- Activity 4.4 - Displacement Reaction Aim: To study a displacement reaction. Materials Required: Test tube Iron nail Copper sulphate solution Method: 1. Fill the test tube with copper sulphate solution (blue in colour). 2. Place the clean iron nail in the solution. Observations and Conclusions: After about an hour, the solution changes to green, and a reddish-brown deposit is formed on the iron nail. --- Corrosion of Metals Corrosion is the destruction or damage of a material due to chemical reaction. Rusting of iron happens when iron is exposed to moist air, forming a reddish-brown layer of rust. Rust is iron oxide, which eventually flakes off, damaging the object. Definition written on the page: "Slow eating of a metal’s surface due to oxidation is called corrosion of metals." --Observations on Metals with Dilute Acids Metals like sodium, potassium, and calcium react violently with dilute acids to liberate hydrogen gas. Magnesium, aluminium, zinc, and iron also displace hydrogen from dilute acids, but the reaction is not violent. Metals such as copper, silver, gold, and platinum do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids. --- Activity Series of Metals The activity series of metals is the arrangement of metals in decreasing order of reactivity. The series in the book shows reactivity decreasing from top to bottom. Potassium is the most reactive metal while gold is the least reactive. --- Displacement of a Metal by Other Metals A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compounds in an aqueous solution. Some examples: Mg + CuSO_4 \rightarrow MgSO_4 + Cu Zn + FeSO_4 \rightarrow ZnSO_4 + Fe Iron can displace copper from copper sulphate solution (as shown in Activity 4.4). The solution turns green, and reddish-brown copper deposits on the iron nail. Copper cannot displace iron from iron sulphate solution, showing that copper is less reactive than iron. Cu + FeSO_4 \rightarrow \text{No reaction} Question: What do you think will happen if you place a silver spoon in copper sulphate solution? --- Activity 4.4 - Displacement Reaction Aim: To study a displacement reaction. Materials Required: Test tube Iron nail Copper sulphate solution Method: 1. Fill the test tube with copper sulphate solution (blue in colour). 2. Place the clean iron nail in the solution. Observations and Conclusions: After about an hour, the solution changes to green, and a reddish-brown deposit is formed on the iron nail. --- Corrosion of Metals Corrosion is the destruction or damage of a material due to chemical reaction. Rusting of iron happens when iron is exposed to moist air, forming a reddish-brown layer of rust. Rust is iron oxide, which eventually flakes off, damaging the object. Definition written on the page: "Slow eating of a metal’s surface due to oxidation is called corrosion of metals." Uses of Metals (Continued) Aluminium Used in high-voltage electric lines. Alloys like duralumin and magnalium are used in aircraft and automobile bodies. Used for making aluminium foil and cooking utensils. Copper Good conductor of electricity → Used in electrical wires, cables, motors, and transformers. Good conductor of heat → Used in the bottoms of stainless steel vessels. Zinc Used to make corrosion-resistant galvanised iron (GI) pipes and sheets. Used as an electrode in dry cells. Other Metals Gold and silver → Used in jewellery. Lead → Used in electrodes of lead storage batteries (used in automobiles and inverters). Chromium → Used for electroplating iron to give a shiny, corrosion-resistant finish. --- Looking Back (True/False Statements) 1. Gold, silver, and platinum are found in the Earth’s crust as free metals. → True 2. Most metals are solids that are soft. → False 3. Metals such as zinc and magnesium react with dilute acids to liberate oxygen. → False 4. A less reactive metal displaces a more reactive metal from its aqueous solution. → False 5. The chemical name of rust is zinc oxide. → False (Rust is Fe₂O₃.xH₂O) 6. Coating zinc objects with iron is called galvanising. → False (Galvanising is coating iron with zinc) Non-Metals Physical Properties of Non-Metals Exist as gases or solids at room temperature (except bromine, which is liquid). Not as hard as metals (except diamond, which is very hard). Low tensile strength and low density. Low melting and boiling points (except graphite). Not sonorous (do not produce a ringing sound). Not malleable or ductile (cannot be beaten into sheets or drawn into wires). Do not have lustre (except iodine and graphite). Bad conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite, and silicon under specific conditions). --Chemical Properties of Non-Metals Reaction with Water Most non-metals do not react with water. Highly reactive non-metals (e.g., phosphorus) catch fire in air, so they are stored in water. Fluorine, chlorine, and bromine react with water to form acids. Reaction with Oxygen Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral oxides. Carbon and sulfur react with oxygen to form acidic oxides, which dissolve in water to form acids. Some oxides (e.g., CO, N₂O) are neutral and do not form acids. Examples: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) CO₂ + Water → Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃) Sulfur + Oxygen → Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) SO₂ + Water → Sulfurous Acid (H₂SO₃) Reaction with Acids Unlike metals, non-metals do not replace hydrogen in acids. Silicon reacts with hydrofluoric acid (HF). --Uses of Non-Metals Hydrogen Used in the manufacture of ammonia and industrial chemicals. Used in vanaspati (a cooking oil). Oxygen Used in breathing support systems in hospitals. Used with other gases in equipment to weld metals. Sulphur Used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide gas, and other industrial chemicals. Used to make pesticides for agriculture. Used in vulcanising rubber (making it harder) and in gunpowder. Nitrogen Used in the manufacture of ammonia and nitrogenous fertilisers like ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate. Used as an inert gas in processed food packaging to prevent rancidity. Silicon Used in making semiconductors for microchips. Silicates (oxides of silicon) are used in making glass. Other Non-Metals Phosphorus: Used in making fertilisers (superphosphates). Chlorine: Used for disinfecting drinking water. Argon: Used in welding stainless steel and filling electric bulbs. Helium: Used in balloons for meteorological observations. Neon: Used in fluorescent lights for advertisement displays

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UNIT ONE: CANADA AND THE WORLD Focus Questions: •What is the approx. population of Canada? 41 million (41 288 599 • Map of Canada o Name the 3 oceans that touch Canada – be able to locate them on a map Pacific ocean Arctic ocean Atlantic Ocean o Name the 10 provinces and their capital cities British Columbia (Victoria) Alberta (Edmonton) Saskatchewan (Regina) Manitoba (Winnipeg) Ontario (Toronto) Quebec (Quebec City) Newfoundland and Labrador (St.John’s) Prince Edward Island (Charlottetown) New Brunswick (Fredericton) Nova Scotia (Halifax) o Name the 3 territories and their capital cities Yukon Territory (White Horse) Northwest Territories (Yellowknife) Nunavut (Iqaluit) o Locate the provinces and territories but not the capital cities (just know them for each province and territory) •What are the 6 factors of the HDI? Life expectancy (how long you can live) Population Growth (how fast the population grows) Education (access the opportunity to learning) Health Care (access to availability to health) Wealth (measures the wealth of the nation) Food supply (measures the availability of nutrition) •What is a Developed Country? Describe it and list 3 developed countries A developed country is in higher demand in living conditions. I.e. higher social and economic levels, average incomes, many luxuries. -20% of the world's population live in these countries Canada USA Japan Spain France •What is a Developing Country? Describe it and list 3 developing countries A developing country is in lower demand for living conditions. I.e. lower social and economic level, high levels of poverty. Primary industry is agriculture→in order to feed themselves and to trade for money Ethiopia Nigeria Rwanda Bangladesh Pakistan •What are cash crops? Which countries grow these? Cash crops are crops that are grown to be sold for money (exports) Crops that are grown: -Bananas/tropical fruit -Mango -Cocoa beans -Coconuts -Coffee beans -Dragon fruit -Cotton -Sugar •Which country gives the most in foreign aid money? Foreign Aid: Money, food or other resources given by one country to another to promote development and welfare United states gives the most in foreign aid money ($66.04 billion) UNIT TWO: INTERACTIONS IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Focus Questions: •What is Pangaea and who came up with this idea and what did he call the theory? 200 million years ago the continents formed a single giant land mass supercontinent called Pangaea and started to split up -Alfred Wegner came up with this theory and named it continental drift •What evidence did Wegener have to prove his theory? There were 4 PUZZLE PIECES- Shorelines of the continents seem to fit together like a puzzle piece (east coast of South America fit with the west coast of Africa) SIMILAR FOSSILS AND ROCK TYPES Similar rock types were found in these two locations despite the fact that they were thousands of km apart (East coast of south america and west coast of africa) LOCATION OF MOUNTAINS Wegener found mountains formed 300 million years ago that are similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic ocean EVIDENCE OF ICE SHEETS Ice sheets covered southern Africa, India and Australia about 250 million years ago •What are the 4 layers of the earth and which is liquid? Crust Mantel Outer core (Liquid layer) Inner core •What is the Ring of Fire and where is it located? An area where large amounts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics and the movement and collisions of plates. Located in: Basin of the Pacific Ocean •Landform Regions of Canada o Review the map o Which landform region do you live in? Toronto is in this landform region. I live in the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowland region. o Which landform region has the Rocky Mountains? Western Cordillera o Which landform region is near the Pacific Ocean? Western Cordillera o Which landform region is the furthest north? Innuitian Mountains o Which landform region is the smallest? Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands o Which landform region is the largest? Canadian Shield •Which landform region is known as the Breadbasket with large wheat farms? Interior Plains • Define climate and weather – what is the difference? Weather The day to day conditions of the atmosphere -Short periods of time -Small areas -Temperature and precipitation Climate Weather conditions of a large area for a long period of time DIFFERENCE TIME PERIOD- Weather describes atmospheric conditions over a few days while climate describes many years (around 20) LAND AREA- Weather=localized (ex. Rainy in brampton and sunny in vaughan) Climate=regionalized (ex. All of southern Ontario has the same climate) •What are the factors that affect climate? List them (LOWERN) Latitude Ocean Currents Wind currents Elevation Relief Nearness to water o Which one might affect the coast of BC the most Nearness to water affects BC the most. o Which one might affect the Arctic the most Latitude •What are the 3 ocean currents that affect Canada? Where are they? Pacific- West coast Arctic- Northern Atlantic- Eastern • Maritime vs continental MARITIME: -Mainly found along the eastern and western coasts (typcial climate fo areas near the coast -Mild winters and summers -Frequent precipitation (close to or usually over 1000mm a year, lowest around 900) Examples- Vancouver, British Columbia or St. john’s NFL or Halifax, Nova Scotia CONTINENTAL: -Typical climate of areas more inland in the interior of Canada (Prairie provinces such as Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) -Variations of temperature because of the lack of bodies of water (Hot summers and very cold winters) -Increased temp fluctuations (high summer temps and low winter temps) -Less precipitation (usually 200-1000 of rain a year) Examples- Regina, Saskatchewan, Calgary, Alberta, Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Ottawa, Ontario • Climate Graphs and how to do the calculations: Climate graphs show TOTAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION and AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURES typically in a particular location o What is the formula for calculating the average temperature? Add up all the temperatures and divide by 12 (℃) o What is the formula for calculating the total precipitation? Add up all the monthly precipitation totals (mm) o What is the formula for calculating the temperature range? The highest temperature minus the lowest temperature (℃) o Can you figure out how to find the month with the highest temperature and the Lowest temperature On a graph you look at the highest points and the lowest • Name the climate region by the Pacific Ocean Pacific Maritime • Name the climate region by the Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Maritime • Name the climate region in Canada’s far north Arctic • Name the climate region you live in. Boreal •Which climate region is a frozen desert? Arctic •What is global warming? The rising of the average temperature on Earth o Why does it happen? Global warming happens because of the greenhouse gases that are emitted into the Earth’s atmosphere. o What activities cause it? Are they mainly human made reasons? NATURAL CAUSES (cannot be caused by humans) MAN MADE CAUSES (Human actions) Temperature fluctuations of the planet Volcanic eruptions Increased solar activity Transportation Manufacturing Oil drilling Farming Deforestation MAN MADE CAUSED OVERPOWER NATURAL CAUSES o Which gases are most responsible for global warming? Where do they come from? Four main gases that absorb radiation are H20- water vapor CO2- Carbon Dioxide (burning fossil fuels and Deforestation) CH4- Methane (agriculture) N2O- Nitrous Oxide (Agriculture) o Which is the worst greenhouse gas? Carbon Dioxide o How does it happen - Explain the process of global warming Sun emits energy in the form of SHORTWAVE RADIATION which can go through anything clear Reaches earth and absorbs but some escapes back into space Long Wave cannot go through anything (not even greenhouse gases) Longwave returns back to Earth making it hotter than it should be o What is the difference between longwave vs shortwave radiation? Short wave- Can go through anything clear Long wave- Cannot go through anything o What might be some global warming problems in Canada Changes rain and snow patterns Migration and life cycles Less snow and ice Higher temperatures and more heat waves UNIT THREE: CHANGING POPULATIONS AND L IVABLE COMMUNITIES Focus Questions: •What is a census? A census is used to count the population and learn important data •Where does the majority of Canada’s population live? Ontario • Name the 4 main classes of immigrants to Canada? Economic Class Family class Refugees Humanitarian and other •Which class of immigrants goes through the point system and how many points do they need to earn? ECONOMIC CLASS- 67/100 points •What factors can you earn points for? Hasn't committed a serious Doesn’t pose a risk to Canada’s security Hasn’t violated human or internationa rights Is in good health (determined by a medical exam) Has a valid passport or travel document Anyone applying to live permanently in Canada must provide A police certificate or criminal record check Their photo and fingerprints if over 14 or under 79 years of age •From which class does Canada accept the most immigrants? Economic Class •Which people can immigrate to Canada in the Family Class Immigrants? FAMILY CLASS: -Parents -Spouses -Children joining family members that are already living in Canada •What is a refugee? Two Main types of resettled refugees: GOVERNMENT ASSISTED PRIVATELY SPONSORED Referred by the UN refugee agency based on their location and vulnerability and are getting government assistance during this transition Brought to Canada by government approved citizens and organizations that assume legal and financial responsibility for them Refugees cannot apply directly to be resettled in Canada All refugees undergo screening by Canadian officials and generally have permanent resident status when they arrive. • Define and list examples of push factors for immigrants PUSH FACTORS (Reasons for leaving your home country to go live in another one, what pushes people out?) War and conflict Natural disasters Unfair political reasons Poverty Limited rights and freedoms Lack of employment Racial persecution Religious persecution Lack of services- lack of access to education and healthcare Dislike the climate No family • Define and list examples of pull factors for immigrants PULL FACTORS (Reasons to choose a country to go live in (what pulls people to come?) Religious freedom Marriage Opportunities for better employment Family Improve standard of living Favourable climate Democratic government More rights and freedoms •Population pyramids It is a diagram that gives information about a country’s population breakdown by age and gender for any year % of males and females in each group The proportion of young people (0-14 years old) The proportion of Working people (15-64 years old) The proportion of Elderly people (65 and older) o How do you calculate the total % of children in a population? Add the percentages from 0-14 o How do you calculate the total % of working population Add the percentages from 15-64 years old o How do you calculate the total % of seniors in a population? Add the percentages from 65 and above o What is dependency load and how do you calculate it? The % of the population that does not work and so it depends on the working population (Add the % of children and the % of seniors to get a total %) o pyramid with a wide base means what? POPULATION GROWTH o A pyramid with a narrow base means what? POPULATION DECLINE •What is a baby boomer? In 1950, after WW2, many families began to have children which meant the birth rate was very high. (1950-1965) -As the baby boomers grow older Canada’s population will continue to age as there is so many of them to still age •What is a centenarian? A person who is 100 years old and above •What does the greying of Canada’s population mean? Population is getting older so it is aging as a whole and not made up of mainly young people o Why is this happening? There are 2 main reasons – can you explain them? INCREASE IN LIFE EXPECTANCY - Life expectancy in Canada is currently 83 years old for men and 84 for women - More Canadians than ever before are living to 85 and beyond DECREASE IN BIRTH RATES - People are not having large families anymore as woman no longer stay home and choose to work, children are expensive and not everyone gets married today o what are some of the problems we can encounter as a country in the future if this continues? More Candians are receiving old age pension and are seeking more health care and services = expensive to have many seniors Proportionally fewer people are working and paying income tax = less money available Housing and transportation needs are changing, as is consumption, which is shifting towards goods and services for seniors The # of families made up of couples whose children have left home is also on the rise •Where does the majority of Canada’s population live? ONTARIO UNIT FOUR: CANADIAN INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCE Focus Questions: •What is an Ecological Footprint? THE AMOUNT OF THE ENVIRONMENT NECESSARY TO PRODUCE THE GOODS AND SERVICES NECESSARY TO SUPPORT OUR LIFESTYLES -It is a way of looking at how much of the Earth we each use to live the life that we are in this country -An area of land and water that would be required to provide for a countries populations resources and absorb its waste o How is it measured? Calculated in hectares of land, and is used to calculate the amount of Earth’s bio-productive space needed to keep a population at its current level of resource consumption -Use the amount of land area / person o Which countries have large footprints? CHINA USA INDIA o Which countries have small footprints ETHIOPIA MALI o How does a footprint get larger? o What can be done to reduce a footprint? Switch of the lights Take the stairs AC on? Shut the windows Take shorter showers Power down laptops Unplug electronics when not in use Keep room temp moderate Do full laundry loads Use fewer or share appliances Switch to LED lightbulbs •What is sustainable development? Meeting present needs without compromising the chances of future generations to meet their needs •What is an export? The selling of goods and services to another country •What is an import? The buying of goods and services from another country • Name and explain the 3 main types of industries found in Canada and what they do PRIMARY SECTOR (Resource based industries) SECONDARY SECTOR (Manufacturing) TERTIARY SECTOR (service industries) Harvesting or extracting raw materials from nature JOBS: -Mining -Famers -Fishers -Foresters -oil workers Converting raw materials into fishing products JOBS: -Factory workers -Food processors -Construction workers Providing services to businesses and consumers JOBS: -Retail workers -Teachers -Nurses -Dentists -Restaurant staff -Lawyers -Electrician o Which sector employs the most people SERVICE INDUSTRIES (76% OF CANADA’S POPULATION) •List the conventional sources of energy FOSSIL FUELS NUCLEAR ENERGY NATURAL GASES •List the alternative sources of energy SOLAR ENERGY WIND ENERGY HYDROELECTRICITY GEOTHERMAL BIOMASS O what are some of the advantages of alternative energy forms? -Never runs out -Abundant (more power than needed) -Sustainable (energy were getting now is gonna be the same later) -Clean •Which sources of energy are renewable and which are non renewable? ALTERNATIVE= RENEWABLE CONVENTIONAL= NON RENEWABLE •Which source of energy does Canada produce the most? ALTERNATIVE SOURCES (hydroelectricity) •Which sector of the economy uses the most energy? PRIMARY SECTOR (RESOURCE BASED INDUSTRIES) •Which sources are Canadians dependent on? ALTERNATIVE SOURCES •Which province has a lot of production of fossil fuels? ALBERTA WHEN YOU ARE DONE THIS REVIEW, COMPLETE THE PRACTICE SHEET

XX. Physical and Cognitive Changes 1. early adulthood: (18-30) a. reach physical peak: strongest, healthiest, and quickest reflexes b. physical decline is slow and gradual (usually unnoticed until late 20s) 1. possible explanations a. cells lose ability to repair themselves b. cells have preset biological clocks (limit ability to divide and multiply) 2. middle age (30-65) a. changes in appearance: grey and thinning hair, wrinkles b. sight difficulties (seeing in the distance) 3. old age (66+) a. muscles and fat begin to break down; lose weight and become shorter b. gradual or sudden loss of hearing c. reaction time slows Health Problems 1. some changes are natural others develop from disease, or lifestyle a. sensible eating, exercising, avoiding tobacco, drugs and alcohol will look and feel younger b. cancer, heart disease, and cirrhosis of the liver (encouraged by lifestyle) Marriage and Divorce 1. 90% of population will marry; 40-60% of new marriages end in divorce a. marriage success: how couples resolve conflicts & how often they share intimate and happy moments 1. arguments are constructive 2. arranged marriages are surprisingly successful Menopause and Sexual Behavior 1. menopause: the biological event in which a woman’s production of hormones is sharply reduced (usually between age of 45 & 50) a. woman stops ovulating and menstruating: conceiving children is no longer possible b. irritability and depression can develop (psychological origin) c. many women enjoy this stage (more confident, calmer, and freer) 2. sexual activity doesn’t decline with age Cognitive Changes 1. mid 20s: learning new skills and information, solving problems, and shifting problem solving strategies improves dramatically 2. 40s: peak of creativity and productivity 3. 50s-60s: peak in humanities (history, foreign languages, and literature) a person’s character and personality remain stable through the years A. Daniel Levinson’s Theory of Male Development (structures and transitions) 1. Early Adult Transition: 17-22 2. Entering the Adult World: 22-28 a. desire to explore the options of the adult world conflict with need to establish a stable life Age 30 transition: 28-33 a. reexamining life structure: occupation, marriage partner, life goals 4. Settling down: 33-40 a. “making it” & “becoming one’s own man” 5. Midlife transition: 40-45 a. “midlife crisis” Entering middle adulthood: 45-50 a. stability if transition was satisfactory 7. Midlife transition: 50-55 a. generativity: the desire, in middle age, to use one’s accumulated wisdom to guide future generations b. stagnation: a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past Culmination of middle adulthood: 55-60 9. Late adult transition: 60-65 10. Late adulthood: 65-70 Female Development 1. women often face the same challenges as males a. 58% of adult women work outside the home 2. women generally don’t have a midlife crisis a. some women see period as a challenge after starting a family first 3. last child leaving home a. usually only traumatic if paired with an unstable marriage 4. depression is common among middle-aged women a. loss of role as mother, daughter, and wife Changes that Come with Aging 1. decremental model of aging: idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age a. view is unrealistic b. ageism: prejudice or discrimination against the elderly Misconceptions a. the elderly rarely suffer from poor health, rarely live in poverty, and are rarely victims of crime b. the elderly rarely withdraw from life c. the elderly are rarely inflexible or senile Changes in Health 1. good health in adulthood carries over into old age 2. 80% of elderly have at least one chronic disease a. heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and arthritis 3. 65-74 year olds: 80% believe health is good 4. 75+: 72% believe health is good 5. quality of care is inferior to that of the general population a. 4% of elderly population live in nursing homes Changes in Life Situation 1. transitions in late adulthood a. 41% of women and 13% of men 65+ are widowed b. 60% of women and 22% of men 75+ are without a spouse 2. more elderly are spending time learning and developing new skills C. Changes in Sexual Activity 1. the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior Adjusting to Old Age 1. a negative self-concept results from: a. changes in health, recognition in the community, rare visits from family and friends, respect of privacy, leisure and work activities b. loss of physical control 2. assertive personalities cope better 3. AARP: speak out about social issues that affect the elderly there is much less decline in intelligence and memory than assumed 2. crystalized intelligence: the ability to use accumulated knowledge and learning in appropriate situations (increases with age) 3. fluid intelligence: the ability to solve abstract relational problems and to generate new hypotheses (decreases as nervous system declines) Dementia: decreases in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age 1. memory loss, forgetfulness, disorientation of time and place, decline in ability to think, impaired attention, altered personality 2. is not a normal part of normal development Alzheimer’s Disease: a condition that destroys a person’s ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for herself or himself 1. 4.5 million have disease in U.S. 2. 6th leading cause of death among U.S. adults 3. most often leads to a weakened state that leads to fatal problems 4. causes are not completely understood and there is currently no cure Approaching Death 1. death is a culturally and emotionally confusing and complex process A. Stages of Dying 1. thanatology: the study of dying and death Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: studied how the terminally ill react to their impending death a. denial: “no it can’t be happening to me” 1. often leads to individuals avoiding treatment b. anger: “Why me?” 1. often alienate themselves from others c. bargaining: changing of attitudes combined with bargaining d. depression: begin contemplating the losses that are coming e. acceptance: often experience a sense of calm Making Adjustments 1. Camille Wortman theorized that Kubler-Ross’s stages were just the five most common styles of dealing with death 2. how should we deal with the impending death of others a. provide opportunities for the dying to have respect, dignity and self-confidence b. open communication about dying process and legal and financial issues c. avoid judgments concerning grieving of others the contemporary population is mostly insulated from death 2. life expectancy is much longer today and most people no longer die at home A. Hospice Care 1. hospice: a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying a. goal is to create the most home-like environment where pain management can be provided b. home-based hospice care is now more frequently used than inpatient Dealing with Grief 1. John Bowlby: grief-based attachment research a. shock and numbness 1. can last several hours or weeks b. yearning and searching 1. grievers often isolate themselves 2. guilt and anger can manifest in this stage 3. may last for several months John Bowbly: disorientation and disorganization 1. depression can manifest 2. new reality becomes very confusing d. reorganization and resolution 1. griever overcomes feeling of isolation Pavlov’s Dogs 1. classical conditioning: a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus a. attaching an old prompt or stimulus to a new prompt or stimulus 2. neutral stimulus (N): a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response a. sound of tuning fork (Pavlov’s experiment) 3. unconditioned stimulus (US): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training a. food (Pavlov’s experiment) 4. unconditioned response (UR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus a. salivation (Pavlov’s experiment) 5. conditioned stimulus (CS): a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus 6. conditioned response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus A. Acquisition 1. gradually occurs every time a N/US is paired with a UR/CR 2. best timing is when the N is presented just before an US (.5 seconds) B. Generalization and Discrimination 1. generalization: responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli a. Pavlov taught dog to respond to a circle; dog would respond to other figures 2. discrimination: the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli a. Pavlov proved by never pairing the food with the oval Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 1. extinction: the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus a. Pavlov stopped giving food after sound of tuning fork 2. spontaneous recovery: when a CR reappears when a CS occurs without a US John Watson & Rosalie Rayner: the case of Little Albert a. explored the relationship between classical conditioning and emotional responses b. trained 11-month old Albert to fear lab rat c. Rat (NS) + loud sound (US) => fear (UR) Hobart & Mollie Mowrer 1938 study a. developed a bed-wetting alarm to awaken children as they begin to wet bed b. Full bladder (NS) + Alarm (UCS) => Awaken (UCR) Taste Aversions 1. develop after illness follows dining experience a. usually connected to new food even when other food was eaten John Garcia & R.A. Koelling 1. Rats (A) shocked after drinking flavored water paired with flashing lights and clicking sounds a. rats developed an aversion to the lights/sounds 2. Rats (B) injected with drug activated by drinking water (led to upset stomach) a. rats developed an aversion to the taste of the water c. used to condition coyotes to hate the taste of sheep Behaviorism 1. classical conditioning is a great example of behaviorist theory a. behaviorist study behaviors that can be observed and measured; not unobservable mental activity Reinforcement 1. operant conditioning: learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence a. participant must be actively involved 1. classically conditioned organisms are passive participants Positive and Negative Reinforcement 1. B.F. Skinner: trained rats to respond to lights and sounds (Skinner Box) 2. reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated positive reinforcement: adding something desirable after a behavior occurs 1. food (Skinner Box), social approval, money, extra privileges b. negative reinforcement: removal of something undesirable after a behavior occurs 1. changing a smoke alarm battery, buckling seatbelt, use of an umbrella Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 1. primary reinforcer: stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water 2. secondary reinforcer: stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer a. Wolfe experiment 1936 (Chimpanzees) b. money is best example Schedules of Reinforcement 1. continuous schedule: reinforcing behavior every time it occurs 2. partial schedule: positive reinforcement occurs sporadically a. acquired behaviors are more slowly established but are more persistent 1. discovered when the Skinner Box kept breaking down ratio schedules: reinforcement based on the number of responses 1. fixed-ratio: reinforcement depends on specified quantity of responses a. most consumer loyalty punch cards 2. variable-ratio: reinforcement after varying number of responses a. slot machines, door to door sales, telemarketing 1. very resistant to extinction interval schedules: reinforcement occurs after an amount of time elapses 1. fixed-interval: reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed a. salaries, cramming for tests 2. variable-interval: reinforcement of the first response after varying amounts of time a. fishing, pop quizzes 1. very resistant to extinction shaping: technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward 1. flag-raising rat a. reinforce rat for approaching flagpole b. reinforce after rat raises paw while near flagpole c. reinforce after rat gets on hind legs while near flagpole d. reinforce after rat nibbles at cord while on hind legs Combining Responses: Chaining 1. response chains: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next a. complex skill of swimming involves organizing large response chains 1. arm stroke chain, breathing chain, leg kick chain Aversive Control: process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli completed through use of negative reinforcers or punishers A. Negative Reinforcement: increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs 1. escape conditioning: training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus a. parents removing an unpleasant meal when child whines and gags while eating avoidance conditioning: training of an organism to respond so as to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus a. parents deciding against presenting an unpleasant circumstance because child whines at the possibility Punishment 1. leads to the removal or reduction of behavior 2. must be unpleasant to work a. some reprimands may actually serve as reinforcers 3. positive punishment: adding unpleasant circumstances 4. negative punishment: removal of pleasant circumstances Disadvantages of Punishment 1. can produce rage, aggression, and fear in children 2. spanking can lead to increased aggression toward other children 3. can lead to children avoiding person who punishes 4. fails to teach appropriate and acceptable behavior Cognitive Learning 1. social learning: process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others a. learning goes beyond mechanical responses to stimuli or reinforcement 2. cognitive learning: form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 1. Wolfgang Kohler: chimpanzee study on insight 2. Edward Tolman: rat study on cognitive maps and latent learning a. cognitive map: a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events b. latent learning: alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior Learned Helplessness: condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable 1. college students/noise study 2. Martin Seligman Theory a. stop trying b. lower self-esteem c. depression ensues Modeling: learning by imitating others; copying behavior mimicry: performing old, established responses that we might not be using at the time. 2. observational learning: learning to perform a behavior after watching others perform it a. Albert Bandura: Bobo doll experiment 3. disinhibition: the increased likelihood a behavior will be repeated when observed behavior is not punished a. often used to alleviate phobias the systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions or feelings A. Computer-Assisted Instruction 1. S.L. Pressey (1933) & B.F. Skinner (1950s) a. program that uses reinforcement (new information, choices, or point rewards) each time a student shows they learned something new b. program builds on information student has already mastered Token Economics 1. token economy: conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards a. used in schools, prisons, mental hospitals, and halfway houses Self-Control 1. having people set up personal systems of rewards and punishments to shape their own thoughts and actions a. define the problem b. track the behavior c. set up a behavioral contract Improving Your Study Habits 1. progressively increase study quotas (successive approximations) a. remove conditioned aversive stimuli adjust to change or alter in order to fit or conform adapt A changing to fit new conditions menopause the biological event in which a woman's production of sex hormones is sharply reduced generativity the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations stagnation a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past function the ability to achieve his or her goals within him or her self and the external environment. It includes an individual's behavior, emotion, social skills, and overall mental health assumed accepted as real or true without proof decremental model of aging idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age ageism prejudice or discrimination against the elderly dementia decreases in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age Alzheimer's disease a condition that destroys a person's ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for herself or himself component A part or element of a larger whole. isolating causing one to feel alone thanatology the study of death and dying hospice a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying classical conditioning a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus neural stimulus a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response unconditioned stimulus an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training unconditioned response an organism's automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus conditioned stimulus a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus conditioned response the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus generalization responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli discrimination the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli extinction the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus operant conditioning learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence reinforcement stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated secondary reinforcer stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforce primary reinforcer stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water shaping technique in which the desired behavior is "molded" by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward response chain learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next aversive control process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli negative reinforcement increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs escape conditioning training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus avoidance conditioning training of an organism to respond so as to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus social learning process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others cognitive learning form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation cognitive map a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events latent learning alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior learned helplessness condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior token economy conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards

Traffic Signals/Lights

LL : the bright lights of sarajevo vocabulary

ATC lights

VOLUMETRIC JACK O LANTERNS EMIT DIM LIGHTS

Amber and Red annunciator lights