Introduction to Ethics
Ethics – The study of moral principles governing human behavior.
Moral Universe – The idea that morality is fundamental to human life, not justphysical needs.
Instrumental Questions – Questions concerning practical actions to achieve mundane goals.
Non-Instrumental Questions – Questions about principles that go beyond mere survival or convenience.
Branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics – The study of the nature of reality.
Epistemology – The study of knowledge and belief.
Ethics (Moral Philosophy) – The study of what is right and wrong.
Aesthetics – The study of beauty and artistic values.
Logic – The study of reasoning and argumentation.
Types of Ethical Theories
Ideal Theory – Ethical theories that act as guiding principles, though rarely fully applicable in reality.
Monistic Theories – Ethical theories that rely on a single principle to determine moral actions.
Pluralistic Theories – Ethical approaches that integrate multiple ethical principles.
Consequentialism vs. Non-Consequentialism
Consequentialist Ethics – Judges actions based on their outcomes.
Non-Consequentialist Ethics – Judges actions based on principles, regardless of outcomes.
Theory Type Examples
Non-Consequentialist Kant’s Deontology, Rights Theories, Religious Ethics
Consequentialist Utilitarianism, Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics
Kantian Ethics (Deontology)
Immanuel Kant – 18th-century philosopher who founded deontological ethics.
Categorical Imperative – A universal moral law that dictates ethical behavior.
Formula of Universal Law – Act only according to principles that could become universal.
Formula of Humanity – Treat others as ends in themselves, not as means.
Formula of Autonomy – Act as though you are legislating universal moral law.
Autonomy – The ability to self-govern moral decisions.
Dignity – The inherent worth of rational beings.
Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham – Founder of classical utilitarianism, focused on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.
John Stuart Mill – Developed higher and lower pleasures in utilitarianism.
Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) – The moral action is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness.
Higher vs. Lower Pleasures – Higher pleasures (intellectual, artistic) are superior to lower (bodily) pleasures.
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics (Eudaimonism)
Eudaimonia – Human flourishing, the highest good.
Arete – Excellence or virtue in fulfilling one’s purpose.
Doctrine of the Mean – Virtue lies between extremes of excess and deficiency.
Phronesis – Practical wisdom for making ethical decisions.
Hexis – A stable character trait formed through habituation.
Telos – The purpose or goal of something.
Religious Ethics
Jewish Ethics
Decalogue (Ten Commandments) – The foundational moral code in Judaism.
Halakhah – Jewish law guiding moral and religious behavior.
Rabbi Hillel’s Golden Rule – “What you dislike, don’t do to others.”
Christian Ethics
Imago Dei – The belief that humans are made in the image of God.
The Beatitudes – Teachings from Jesus emphasizing humility, mercy, and justice.
Agape – Selfless, unconditional love.
Nietzsche’s Critique – Claimed Christian ethics promote “slave morality.”
Islamic Ethics
Five Pillars of Islam:
Shahadah – Declaration of faith.
Salah – Daily prayer.
Zakat – Almsgiving.
Sawm – Fasting during Ramadan.
Hajj – Pilgrimage to Mecca.
Jihad – The struggle to maintain faith and righteousness.
Islamic Contributions – Advances in science, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy.
Rights and Natural Law
Natural Rights – Fundamental entitlements derived from human nature.
Social Contract – The idea that individuals consent to governmental authority in exchange for protection of rights.
Hohfeldian Analysis – A framework for understanding different kinds of rights.
Forms of Rights:
Claims – Demands imposed on others.
Powers – The ability to enforce or alter legal arrangements.
Liberties – Freedom from external restrictions.
Immunities – Protection from harm or coercion.
Justifications for Rights
Deontological Justification (Kant) – Rights come from moral duties.
Utilitarian Justification (Mill, Bentham) – Rights exist to maximize happiness.
Theological Justification – Rights are God-given.
Natural Law Justification – Rights arise from nature and reason.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Pre-Conventional Level – Morality based on avoiding punishment or seeking reward.
Conventional Level – Morality based on social approval and maintaining order.
Post-Conventional Level – Morality based on universal ethical principles.
Social and Political Ethics
Discrimination and the Idea of Race – Ethical issues surrounding racial discrimination.
Business Ethics – Ethical principles in commerce and trade.
Euthanasia – Moral debates about assisted dying.
Sexual Ethics – Ethics concerning sexual relationships and behaviors.
Crime and Punishment – The morality of justice systems and punishment.
War, Terrorism, and Cosmopolitanism – Ethics concerning conflict and global responsibility
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