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Psychology: Development Across the Life Span Study notes 1. Developmental psychology (slides 2–11) Developmental psychology: The study of how people change from conception until death. Three domains of development: Physical: Changes in the brain and body. Cognitive: Changes in thinking, learning and memory. Socio-emotional: Changes in emotions and relationships. Important terms Term What to remember Teratogens Substances that harm prenatal development Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) A serious condition caused by prenatal alcohol exposure Maturation Natural physical development that makes new abilities possible Synapses Connections where neurons communicate Myelination Insulation of axons that improves neural signaling Brain development: Positive environments, stimulation and caregiver contact support healthy brain development. Poverty, toxins, stress and poor nutrition can negatively affect development. Exam example: A baby gradually develops the physical ability to sit, crawl and walk. Answer: Maturation. 2. Attachment theory (slides 12–17) Harlow's experiment Baby monkeys were given two artificial mothers: A wire mother that provided milk. A soft cloth mother that provided comfort. The monkeys preferred the cloth mother and approached the wire mother mainly for food. Conclusion: Attachment involves comfort and security, not just food. Ainsworth's three attachment styles Style Behavior Secure Upset when caregiver leaves; comforted when they return Avoidant Avoids or ignores the caregiver Ambivalent Seeks comfort but also resists it Separation anxiety: Distress when separated from a caregiver. Exam example from your slides: Ian cries for attention. When his mother eventually picks him up, he hugs her but continues crying and pushes his toy away. Answer: Ambivalent attachment. 3. Piaget's cognitive development (slides 22–32) This is a section I'd spend extra time studying because it includes several theories and concepts that can appear in scenario questions. Schemas: Mental frameworks used to understand the world. Assimilation: Adding new information to an existing schema. Accommodation: Changing an existing schema to fit new information. Example: A child calls every four-legged animal a dog. That's assimilation. The child learns that cats are different from dogs and changes their understanding. That's accommodation. Piaget's four stages Four stages to memorize Age ranges follow your professor's slides. Sensorimotor: Birth–2 years Babies learn through their senses and movements. Key concept: Object permanence — knowing an object still exists when hidden. Preoperational: 2–7 years Children use symbols and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning. Key concepts: Egocentrism, symbolic play and difficulty understanding conservation. Concrete operational: 7–12 years Children develop logical thinking about concrete situations. Key concepts: Conservation, rules and improved mathematical reasoning. Formal operational: 12 years–adulthood People develop abstract thinking and can formulate and test hypotheses. Other important definitions Object permanence: Knowing something exists even when you can't see it. Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding another person's perspective. Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same even when appearance changes. Symbolic play: Pretending one object represents something else. Piaget's limitation: He underestimated how early some cognitive abilities develop. Modern psychologists often view development as more gradual. 4. Adolescent development (slides 34–38) Adolescence: Approximately ages 11–21, according to your slides. Important brain regions: Limbic system: Involved in motivation and emotions. Frontal cortex: Important for planning, judgment and decision-making. During adolescence, emotional and motivational systems can be particularly active while the frontal cortex continues developing. Factors influencing identity Culture Gender Personal characteristics Friends and peers Parenting Four parenting styles Style Definition Authoritarian Strict rules, low responsiveness Authoritative Clear rules, high responsiveness Permissive Few rules, high responsiveness Neglectful Few rules, low responsiveness Remember the difference between authoritarian and authoritative. They sound similar but represent different parenting approaches. 5. Erikson's psychosocial theory (slides 18–20, 38–40) Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development. Each involves a developmental conflict. Your slides emphasize identity formation during adolescence and three challenges in later life. For your notes, learn all eight stages. Stage Conflict Infancy Trust vs. mistrust Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Preschool Initiative vs. guilt Childhood Industry vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Four concepts to understand especially well: Identity vs. role confusion: Discovering who you are. Intimacy vs. isolation: Developing close relationships. Generativity vs. stagnation: Contributing to future generations. Integrity vs. despair: Reflecting on your life with satisfaction or regret. Exam example: Nathan joins several different social groups during high school while figuring out who he is. Answer: Identity vs. role confusion. 6. Kohlberg's moral development (slides 41–47) Kohlberg studied how people reason about right and wrong. Three levels of moral reasoning Preconventional Morality is based on punishment, rewards and self-interest. Example: "I won't steal because I might get caught." Conventional Morality is based on laws, social rules and other people's approval. Example: "I won't steal because stealing is against the law." Postconventional Morality is based on broader ethical principles and human rights. Example: "An unjust law may need to be challenged to protect human rights." Heinz dilemma: A man must decide whether to steal expensive medicine to save his dying wife. Kohlberg was interested in the reasoning behind a person's decision, not simply whether they answered yes or no. Exam examples from your slides Jan fears punishment for an unpaid textbook: Preconventional. Kyle leaves a note after damaging a car because the law requires it: Conventional. A protester breaks curfew to oppose racial injustice based on broader ethical principles: Postconventional. What to put on your exam index card Your professor may allow a limited amount of space, so prioritize concepts that are easy to confuse and useful for scenario questions. Index card notes Copy DEVELOPMENT Physical = body | Cognitive = thinking | Socio-emotional = relationships Teratogens = harm fetus | FAS = prenatal alcohol exposure | Maturation = natural physical development ATTACHMENT Harlow: Comfort over food Secure = accepts comfort | Avoidant = avoids caregiver | Ambivalent = seeks + resists comfort PIAGET Assimilation = use old schema | Accommodation = change schema Sensorimotor (0–2) = senses, object permanence Preoperational (2–7) = symbols, egocentrism, struggles with conservation Concrete (7–12) = logic, conservation Formal (12+) = abstract thinking, hypotheses ADOLESCENCE Limbic = emotion | Frontal = judgment Authoritarian = strict/low warmth | Authoritative = strict/high warmth Permissive = few rules/high warmth | Neglectful = few rules/low warmth ERIKSON Trust → Autonomy → Initiative → Industry → Identity → Intimacy → Generativity → Integrity KOHLBERG Preconventional = punishment/reward Conventional = laws/approval Postconventional = ethical principles Check your professor's rules for index-card size and whether both sides are allowed. This is a condensed reference, not a replacement for studying. How to study these notes without repeating your last exam Tonight, start with attachment and Piaget. Read each section, cover your notes and explain the concepts out loud. Then answer your professor's example questions without looking. Tomorrow, study Erikson and Kohlberg the same way. Review adolescent and prenatal development afterward. For every concept, aim to do three things: define it, give an example and recognize it in a scenario. Most importantly, don't just reread this study guide. Your professor's slides contain eight scenario-based practice questions. Answer all eight without your notes, then explain why each correct answer fits. That's your first practice test

Absolutely 💗 I made this directly from the Unit 1 Review video. The biggest thing your teacher says at the end is that the test won’t just ask you to memorize definitions — you need to be able to apply the concepts to new situations and explain your reasoning using evidence. 🧬 BIOLOGY UNIT 1 TEST STUDY GUIDE 1. 🔬 Scientific Thinking & Experimental Design Know the difference: Observation * Something you directly see, measure, or notice. * Example: The plant grew 4 cm. Inference * A conclusion/explanation based on observations and evidence. * Example: The plant grew because it received more sunlight. Hypothesis * A testable prediction. * Usually written as: If ___, then ___, because ___. Variables Independent variable * What the scientist changes. Dependent variable * What the scientist measures. ⭐ Easy way to remember: Independent = I change it. Dependent = Data I collect. Control group * Used as a comparison. * It helps scientists see whether the independent variable actually caused a difference. Constants * Things that are kept the same during an experiment. Fair test A good experiment should change one main variable while keeping other important conditions controlled. Experimental evidence You need to be able to decide whether results: * Support the hypothesis * Do not support the hypothesis ⚠️ Don’t automatically say a hypothesis was “proven.” Scientists use evidence to determine whether results support it. Repeated trials Scientists repeat experiments and collect multiple measurements because one trial may not be reliable. Sources of error Be able to identify things that could have affected an investigation, such as: * Something not being kept constant * Measuring incorrectly * Equipment problems * Human error * Not enough trials ⸻ 📊 2. Working With Data Your teacher specifically says you need to be able to: Read: * Tables * Graphs * Diagrams * Written scenarios Identify patterns and trends Look for things like: * Increasing * Decreasing * Staying the same * One group being higher/lower than another Compare groups Use actual evidence from the data. ❌ Weak: Group A did better. ✅ Better: Group A had a higher growth rate than Group B. Make predictions Use the pattern in the data to predict what could happen next. Result vs. Conclusion Result = WHAT happened Conclusion = WHAT the results mean Example: Result: Plants receiving more light grew 5 cm taller. Conclusion: The data suggests that greater light exposure increased plant growth. ⸻ 🌱 3. Characteristics of Living Things You need to understand what separates living things from nonliving things. Living things have characteristics such as: 🧫 Cells Living things are made of cells. ⚡ Energy Living things need and use energy. 🌱 Growth & development Living things grow and change throughout their lives. 🧬 Reproduction Living things can produce new organisms. 👀 Response Living things respond to changes in their environment. ⚖️ Maintaining internal conditions Living things maintain stable internal conditions. This is called homeostasis. Evidence questions You may be given an unfamiliar example and asked: Is it living or did it come from something living? Don’t just guess based on whether it moves. Look at the evidence and the characteristics of life. ⸻ 🔬 4. Microscopes & Cellular Observation Your teacher says you need to understand: Purpose of a microscope A microscope allows scientists to observe biological structures that are too small to see with the naked eye. Magnification Magnification makes something appear larger. You need to understand how changing magnification affects what you see. Generally: ⬆️ Higher magnification * Object appears larger * You see a smaller area * You may see more detail ⬇️ Lower magnification * Object appears smaller * You see a larger area Evidence from microscopes Scientists can use observations made with microscopes as evidence. Microscope parts Your video says you should be able to identify microscope parts and know their functions, so make sure you know the parts your class used, especially: * Eyepiece/ocular lens * Objective lenses * Stage * Light source * Diaphragm * Coarse adjustment * Fine adjustment ⸻ ⚛️ 5. Chemistry of Life The atom Know the basic structure of an atom and the roles of its particles: Particle Charge Proton + Neutron 0 Electron − Chemical bonds Atoms can interact with each other and form chemical bonds. You need to understand how atoms interact to form bonds, not just memorize the word “bond.” ⸻ 🖤 6. Why Carbon Is Important Your review specifically says you need to understand: Why carbon is especially important in living organisms. Carbon is important because it can form many different bonds and build the large, complex molecules needed by living things. Structure → Function This is a BIG idea. The structure of a molecule affects its function. In other words: What something looks like/is built like → affects what it can do. You should be able to apply this idea to unfamiliar examples. ⸻ 🧬 7. Biological Molecules Know the four major types of biological molecules and their general roles: 🍞 Carbohydrates Generally used for: * Quick/short-term energy * Some structural purposes 🥑 Lipids Generally used for: * Long-term energy storage * Cell membranes * Insulation/protection 💪 Proteins Used for many jobs, including: * Structure * Transport * Movement * Enzymes 🧬 Nucleic acids Used to: * Store and transmit genetic information ⭐ Remember: Carbs → energy Lipids → long-term energy/storage & membranes Proteins → many jobs, including enzymes Nucleic acids → genetic information ⸻ 🧪 8. ENZYMES ⭐ VERY IMPORTANT Your video has a whole section on enzymes, so definitely study this. What do enzymes do? Enzymes help biological chemical reactions happen more efficiently. They are biological catalysts. Enzyme + substrate An enzyme interacts with the substance it acts on, called the substrate. The substrate interacts with the enzyme’s active site. Think: Enzyme → active site → substrate Structure & function The shape/structure of an enzyme is important because it affects how it interacts with its substrate. That’s another example of: Structure → function Conditions affect enzymes Changes in environmental conditions can affect enzyme activity. For example: * Temperature * pH You need to be able to look at an enzyme investigation and interpret what happened. ⸻ 🌡️ 9. pH & Biological Systems pH scale The pH scale tells you how acidic or basic something is. Remember: 🔴 Low pH → acidic ⚪ pH 7 → neutral 🔵 High pH → basic Why does pH matter? Changes in pH can affect biological processes. This is especially important with enzymes, because changing the conditions can change enzyme activity. Test-style question You might see an experiment where an enzyme is tested at different pH levels. You should be able to: 1. Identify what was changed. 2. Look at the data. 3. Identify the pattern. 4. Explain what happened. 5. Use evidence from the data to support your conclusion. ⸻ 🚨 WHAT YOUR TEACHER REALLY WANTS YOU TO KNOW The last part of your video is SUPER important. It basically says: Don’t just memorize definitions. You need to be able to take what you know and use it in a new situation. For example, they might NOT ask: What is an independent variable? Instead, they could give you an experiment and ask: Which variable is the independent variable? You have to figure it out from the situation. ⸻ ⭐ THE BIG 10 TO KNOW BEFORE THE TEST If you’re short on time, make sure you can answer these: 1. What’s the difference between an observation and an inference? 2. What makes a hypothesis testable? 3. What’s the independent variable vs. dependent variable? 4. Why do scientists use controls, constants, and repeated trials? 5. How do you use data to support a conclusion? 6. What characteristics make something living? 7. How does changing microscope magnification affect what you see? 8. What are the four major biological molecules and their general jobs? 9. How do enzymes interact with substrates, and how can conditions affect enzyme activity? 10. What does pH tell you, and how can changing pH affect biological processes? 🧠 One sentence to remember the whole unit: Scientists use experiments → collect data → find patterns → make conclusions about how living systems work. And honestly, based on the video, #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, enzymes, and pH are the areas I’d focus on the most because the review repeatedly emphasizes applying those ideas to investigations rather than simply memorizing vocabulary.