QM 2 ASSUMPTIONS AND WHAT TESTS

ADV STAT MIDTERM ASSUMPTIONS

# JUPEB WEEK 1: INTEGRATED MASTER PLAN ## ⚡ PHYSICS: Physical Quantities, Dimensions & Vectors ### Core Definitions - Fundamental Quantities: Independent primary metrics (Mass $M$, Length $L$, Time $T$, Temperature $\theta$, Current $I$). - Dimensional Homogeneity: Structural rule stating all terms in an equation must possess matching base units. - Vector vs Scalar: Vectors contain absolute magnitude and directional alignment; scalars express magnitude exclusively. ### Key Formulas - Force Equation Dimensions: $[Force]=M^1L^1T^{-2}$ - Vector Dot Scalar Product: $\vec{A}\cdot\vec{B}=AB\cos\theta$ - Vector Cross Product Magnitude: $|\vec{A}\times\vec{B}|=AB\sin\theta$ ### 25-Mark Theory Essay Practice - Q: Define the principle of dimensional homogeneity and evaluate whether the kinematic function $v^2=u^2+2as$ is dimensionally stable. - Model Points: 1. Define the homogeneity principle clearly. 2. Evaluate left-hand side: $[v^2]=(L^1T^{-1})^2=L^2T^{-2}$. 3. Evaluate right-hand side components: $[u^2]=L^2T^{-2}$ and $[2as]=1\cdot(L^1T^{-2})\cdot(L^1)=L^2T^{-2}$. 4. Compare all terms to confirm matching dimensional arrays ($L^2T^{-2}$), validating structural consistency. --- ## 🧪 CHEMISTRY: Data Measurements, Atomic Structure & Layouts ### Core Definitions - Relative Atomic Mass ($A_r$): Calculated average atomic mass evaluated against $\frac{1}{12}$ of a stable $^{12}C$ isotope. - Orbital Mechanics Rules: Aufbau states lowest energy configurations fill first; Pauli forbids matching quantum states; Hund requires half-filling subshells before pairing. - Measurement Variances: Systematic variations alter accuracy in single directions; random variations alter precision unpredictably. ### Key Electron Configuration Structures - Hydrogen ($H$): $1s^1$ - Carbon ($C$): $1s^2 2s^2 2p^2$ - Oxygen ($O$): $1s^2 2s^2 2p^4$ ### 25-Mark Theory Essay Practice - Q: Describe the four quantum integers ($n,l,m,s$) utilizing electronic energy distributions to account for chromium's exceptional configuration stability. - Model Points: 1. State $n$ (principal energy level), $l$ (orbital subshell shape), $m$ (spatial orientation), and $s$ (spin orientation). 2. Express standard chromium configuration: $[Ar]3d^5 4s^1$. 3. Detail how the symmetric, half-filled $3d^5$ subshell maximizes exchange stability over an un-stabilized $3d^4 4s^2$ layout. --- ## 🧬 BIOLOGY: Scientific Inquiries & Introduction to Biomolecules ### Core Definitions - Scientific Methodology: Empirical loop consisting of Observation $\rightarrow$ Questioning $\rightarrow$ Hypothesis Formulation $\rightarrow$ Empirical Testing $\rightarrow$ Analytical Conclusion. - Condensation Reaction: Synthesis mechanism pairing molecular structures while dropping $H_2O$ units. - Hydrolysis Reaction: Cleavage mechanism splitting polymer chains by introducing reactive $H_2O$ units. ### Structural Biomolecule Frameworks - Monosaccharides: Structural base $(CH_2O)_n$ linking into polysaccharides via glycosidic bridges. - Amino Acids: Built from a central carbon bonded to an amino group ($-NH_2$), a carboxyl group ($-COOH$), and variable side-chains ($-R$). ### 25-Mark Theory Essay Practice - Q: Detail the structured execution of a controlled biological experiment, explaining the role of a null hypothesis ($H_0$) in validating results. - Model Points: 1. Isolate the independent experimental variable while binding all other background constants. 2. Detail quantitative data logging to counter observational bias. 3. Define $H_0$ as a baseline assumption asserting no actual variations exist between test subjects. 4. Use statistics to reject or fail to reject $H_0$, verifying if observed variances stem from variables or simple chance.

ART APPRECIATION: HUMANITIES, ASSUMPTIONS, AND THE NATURE OF ARTS Art Appreciation helps us understand the meaning, purpose, and value of art. It explores the relationship between the humanities and the arts, the common beliefs people have about art, and the different ways art can be understood and interpreted. I. Humanities and Their Relationship to the Arts A. What Are the Humanities? Humanities are fields of study that focus on human beings, experiences, ideas, values, beliefs, creativity, and culture. The word humanities is associated with the Latin term humanitas, which refers to qualities and learning related to being human. The humanities help us understand human life by exploring questions such as: What does it mean to be human? Why do people create? What do people consider beautiful? How do people express their emotions and beliefs? How does culture influence people’s thinking? How have human ideas changed throughout history? The word humanus means “human” and is associated with being refined, cultured, and worthy of dignity. The humanities are also connected to the philosophical idea expressed by the Greek thinker Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.” This emphasizes the role of human beings in understanding and interpreting the world. According to the Webster Dictionary, the humanities include fields such as philosophy, literature, language, and art, excluding theology and the natural and social sciences in the traditional classification. The study of the humanities includes the appreciation of art, which can deepen our understanding of life, reality, and human experiences. B. What Is Art? The word art comes from the Latin word ars, which means skill or ability. Art is a form of human expression through which people communicate their thoughts, emotions, experiences, imagination, beliefs, and perspectives. Art is not limited to beauty. It can also express sadness, anger, humor, social issues, personal experiences, and different views of the world. Art can be understood as a way of grasping the world, particularly human society and spiritual experiences, rather than focusing only on the physical world. Art can take many forms, including the following fine arts: Painting Sculpture Architecture Literature Dance Music Film Works of art can also be classified as verbal or non-verbal. Verbal art uses words to express ideas and emotions. Example: Poems, novels, and plays. Non-verbal art communicates through images, sounds, movements, or forms without relying primarily on words. Example: Paintings, instrumental music, and dance. Art is also influenced by how an artist uses a medium, applies techniques, and expresses the content of an artwork. C. What Is Art? Art is a way for people to share how they experience and understand the world. It can communicate personal feelings, cultural beliefs, social issues, and human experiences. An artwork can be beautiful, emotional, meaningful, thought-provoking, disturbing, humorous, symbolic, or intentionally ordinary. Therefore, art is not limited to objects that people consider beautiful. Its meaning also depends on the artist’s purpose, the methods used, the context, and the viewer’s interpretation. D. Relationship Between Humanities and the Arts The humanities and the arts are closely connected because both explore and communicate human experiences, ideas, emotions, and culture. The humanities help us understand human experiences, while the arts provide ways to express and interpret those experiences. For example, consider a painting depicting poverty. Art communicates the experience of poverty through images, colors, and composition. History explains the social conditions during the period represented. Philosophy encourages us to think about justice and human dignity. Literature presents stories about people experiencing poverty. Sociology helps explain the social relationships and circumstances connected to poverty. This shows that appreciating art involves more than deciding whether an artwork is beautiful. It also requires understanding the artist, society, culture, history, ideas, and emotions behind the work. E. Differences Between Humanities and Art Arts focus more on the creative and expressive aspects of human culture. They involve creating works that communicate ideas, emotions, and experiences. Humanities focus more on studying, analyzing, and interpreting human experiences and cultural works. Arts often emphasize the form, style, techniques, and materials used to create an artwork. Humanities often emphasize the content, meaning, values, and historical or cultural context of a work. Art can be personal and subjective because people may interpret an artwork differently. The humanities use analysis and interpretation to understand human experiences, although interpretations may also vary. F. Importance of Arts and Humanities Arts and humanities help students become well-rounded individuals who can: Become adaptable by understanding different situations and perspectives. Think creatively by developing original ideas and solutions. Develop critical thinking by analyzing and interpreting information. Become responsible citizens by understanding society, culture, and human differences. Improve communication by learning different ways to express ideas and emotions. Understand others by recognizing different experiences, beliefs, and values. II. Why Do We Study Art? Art Appreciation develops our ability to observe, interpret, analyze, and evaluate works of art. 1. Art Develops Creativity Art encourages people to think beyond ordinary ideas and explore different possibilities. Example: Creating a sculpture using clay allows an artist to experiment with different shapes and forms. 2. Art Communicates Emotions Art allows people to express feelings that may be difficult to communicate through ordinary language. Example: Music can communicate sadness, excitement, peace, or nostalgia. 3. Art Reflects Culture Art shows the traditions, beliefs, lifestyles, and values of a particular community. Example: Traditional Filipino weaving, dances, architecture, and music provide insights into Filipino culture. 4. Art Records History Artworks can provide evidence of past events, traditions, people, and ways of life. Example: Historical paintings can show how people dressed and how important events were represented in the past. 5. Art Develops Empathy Art allows us to understand experiences and perspectives that may be different from our own. Example: A film about poverty can help viewers understand the struggles of people living in difficult conditions. 6. Art Encourages Critical Thinking Art encourages viewers to examine and question what they see rather than simply accepting an artwork at face value. When appreciating art, ask: Why did the artist create this? What does the artwork mean? What message is being communicated? Why did the artist use these materials? How does the artwork make me feel? Does the artwork reflect the society in which it was created? These questions help us understand an artwork beyond its physical appearance. COMMON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ARTS An important part of Art Appreciation is examining our assumptions. People often have preconceived ideas about what art should be. Assumption 1: "Art must be beautiful." Assumption 2: "I can't appreciate art because I am not talented." Assumption 3: "Art is only for talented people." Assumption 4: "Art must look realistic." Assumption 5: "Expensive art is automatically good art." Assumption 6: "Art has no practical purpose." CLASSIFICATIONS OF ARTS Art can be classified in different ways. One common approach is to group it according to the medium or form used. Visual Arts Performing Arts Literary Arts Applied Arts Traditional and Contemporary Art The Nature of Art Functions and Theories of Arts Art has existed in virtually every human society. Across time and cultures, people have created artworks not only for beauty but also for communication, worship, political expression, social identity, education, remembrance, and personal expression. Understanding the functions of art helps explain why art is made, while studying art theories provides different ways of interpreting and evaluating artworks. Lesson 2. I. Functions of Art The function of art refers to the purpose, role, or use that an artwork serves for an individual, a community, or society. A single artwork can perform several functions at the same time. 1. Personal Function Art can serve the personal needs of the artist or viewer. Artists often create art to express emotions, experiences, beliefs, dreams, memories, or personal identity. Personal functions may include: expressing emotions and feelings; exploring personal experiences; relieving stress or emotional tension; developing creativity; expressing identity and individuality; communicating ideas that may be difficult to express through words. For example, a painter may create an artwork after experiencing sadness, happiness, fear, or loss. The resulting work becomes a visual representation of the artist's emotional experience. Art can also affect viewers personally. A song, painting, sculpture, or film may inspire someone, remind them of an experience, or help them understand their own feelings. Example: Vincent van Gogh's The Starry Night is often discussed in relation to emotion and personal experience. Its swirling sky, intense movement, and expressive colors contribute to its emotional impact. 2. Aesthetic Function The aesthetic function of art focuses on beauty, visual pleasure, harmony, creativity, and appreciation of form. Art may be created simply because people enjoy looking at beautiful or interesting things. Artists achieve aesthetic qualities through elements such as: color; line; shape; texture; balance; proportion; rhythm; harmony; contrast; composition. Aesthetic value does not necessarily mean that an artwork must be traditionally beautiful. Some works may be strange, unsettling, or unconventional yet still provide a powerful aesthetic experience. Example: Decorative patterns found in textiles, pottery, architecture, and jewelry often serve both practical and aesthetic purposes. 3. Social Function Art performs a social function when it influences, reflects, or addresses relationships among people and communities. Art can help strengthen: community identity; cultural traditions; shared values; social relationships; collective memory. It can also draw attention to social problems such as: discrimination; poverty; inequality; violence; environmental destruction; human-rights concerns. Murals, films, posters, songs, photography, and public performances are commonly used to communicate social messages. Example: Community murals may depict local history, important personalities, cultural traditions, or social struggles. 4. Political Function Art has long been used to influence political thought and public opinion. Political art may: support governments or leaders; criticize political systems; encourage nationalism; promote revolution or reform; protest injustice; expose corruption; defend human rights. Throughout history, governments have also commissioned art to demonstrate political power. Statues, monuments, portraits, architecture, posters, and propaganda are examples of artworks that may have political functions. Example: Political cartoons often use humor, exaggeration, symbolism, and satire to comment on government policies or public officials. 5. Religious and Spiritual Function Religion has been one of the most important influences on art throughout history. Art has been used to: represent gods, saints, ancestors, or spiritual beings; tell religious stories; decorate sacred spaces; support prayer or meditation; communicate religious teachings; strengthen faith; perform rituals. Examples include: church paintings; religious icons; Buddhist sculptures; Islamic calligraphy; Hindu temple sculptures; Indigenous ritual objects. Many great works of architecture were created primarily for religious purposes, including churches, mosques, temples, shrines, and cathedrals. 6. Cultural Function Art preserves and expresses the culture of a society. Through art, communities communicate their: beliefs; customs; traditions; values; historical experiences; symbols; languages; ways of life. Traditional dances, textiles, music, pottery, architecture, festivals, and crafts preserve cultural identity from one generation to another. Philippine example: Indigenous weaving traditions such as T'nalak, Inabel, and other regional textiles demonstrate local craftsmanship, cultural identity, symbolism, and community traditions. 7. Historical Function Art can act as a visual record of history. Paintings, sculptures, architecture, photographs, monuments, and other works may reveal information about: clothing; technology; social classes; occupations; beliefs; political events; wars; ceremonies; daily life. Although an artwork should not always be treated as a completely objective historical record, it can provide valuable evidence about how people understood their world. Example: Historical paintings may portray important national events and help preserve collective memory. 8. Educational Function Art can teach people ideas, values, skills, or information. Before widespread literacy, paintings, sculptures, and stained-glass windows often communicated religious or historical stories to people who could not read. Today, art continues to educate through: posters; illustrations; films; documentaries; infographics; cartoons; theater; murals; educational videos. Art can make complicated ideas easier to understand because it combines information with visual or emotional experience. 9. Economic Function Art also contributes to economic activity. Artists and creative professionals work in industries such as: painting; sculpture; architecture; fashion; advertising; graphic design; photography; filmmaking; animation; music; theater; game design; crafts. Museums, galleries, concerts, cultural festivals, tourism, and art markets also generate employment and income. Art therefore has both cultural and economic value. 10. Practical or Utilitarian Function Some artworks combine beauty with practical use. Examples include: pottery; furniture; clothing; architecture; jewelry; baskets; textiles; household decorations. A chair, for example, has the practical function of providing a place to sit. However, its design may also demonstrate artistic creativity. This connection is especially visible in applied arts, crafts, architecture, and industrial design. 11. Commemorative Function Art can preserve the memory of important people, places, or events. Examples include: monuments; statues; memorials; portraits; historical markers. Commemorative artworks allow societies to remember historical achievements, tragedies, sacrifices, and national heroes. 12. Entertainment Function Art can also provide enjoyment and recreation. Examples include: movies; theater; music; dance; animation; comics; digital games. Although entertainment may seem simple, it can also communicate important cultural, moral, social, or political ideas. II. Functions of Art Across History and Cultures The functions of art change depending on historical and cultural context. Prehistoric Societies Prehistoric art includes cave paintings, carvings, small sculptures, and ritual objects. Possible functions included: communication; ritual practices; storytelling; hunting-related beliefs; spiritual expression; recording community life. For example, cave paintings depicting animals may have been connected to rituals, teaching, or beliefs about hunting. Ancient Civilizations In ancient societies such as Egypt, Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia, India, and China, art often supported religion, government, and social hierarchy. In Ancient Egypt, art was closely connected with religion and beliefs concerning the afterlife. In Ancient Greece, artists emphasized idealized human bodies, proportion, balance, and harmony. Ancient Roman art often celebrated military victories, political leaders, and imperial authority. l Medieval Period European medieval art was strongly influenced by Christianity. Art commonly appeared in: churches; manuscripts; mosaics; sculptures; stained-glass windows. Its primary purpose was often religious education and worship. Renaissance During the Renaissance, artists increasingly studied: anatomy; perspective; nature; mathematics; humanism. Art still performed religious functions, but there was greater emphasis on humanity, individuality, intellectual achievement, and realistic representation. Modern Period Modern artists experimented with new ideas and rejected many traditional artistic rules. Art increasingly became a way to: express individuality; explore emotions; question society; experiment with color and form; challenge artistic conventions. Movements such as Impressionism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism introduced radically different approaches to creating art. Contemporary Period Contemporary art may address issues such as: identity; gender; globalization; migration; technology; consumerism; climate change; inequality; politics; human rights. Contemporary artists frequently work with photography, installation, performance, video, digital art, and mixed media in addition to traditional painting and sculpture. III. Major Theories of Art An art theory is a perspective or framework used to understand what makes something art and how an artwork should be interpreted or evaluated. Several theories can be applied to the same artwork. Three major approaches are Formalism, Expressionism, and Social Commentary. 1. Formalism Formalism focuses primarily on the visual or structural qualities of an artwork. Instead of concentrating on the artist's biography or political message, formalists analyze how the artwork is organized. Formal analysis examines the elements of art, including: line; shape; form; color; value; texture; space. It also examines the principles of design, including: balance; contrast; emphasis; movement; pattern; rhythm; proportion; unity; variety. Main Question of Formalism How is the artwork visually constructed? A formalist might ask: What colors dominate the artwork? How are shapes arranged? Is the composition balanced? Where does the viewer's eye move? How do lines create movement? How does texture affect the work? How are contrast and emphasis created? Example When analyzing The Starry Night formally, a student may discuss: swirling curved lines; strong contrast between the bright stars and dark landscape; movement created by the sky; exaggerated color; visual balance between the village and the sky. The analysis concentrates on what is visually present rather than the artist's biography. 2. Expressionism or Expressive Theory Expressive theory views art as a means of communicating the emotions, experiences, imagination, or inner life of the artist. The value of the artwork is often connected to its ability to communicate feelings effectively. Main Question What emotion or personal experience does the artwork communicate? Students might ask: What emotion seems to dominate the artwork? How do colors communicate emotion? How does the artist's brushwork affect the mood? What personal experience may have influenced the artwork? How does the artwork make the viewer feel? Example Edvard Munch's The Scream may be interpreted through expressive theory. The distorted figure, dramatic sky, curving lines, and intense colors may communicate feelings such as: anxiety; fear; isolation; emotional distress. From an expressive perspective, the emotional effect of the artwork is particularly important. 3. Social Commentary Theory Social commentary views art as a way of examining, criticizing, or communicating ideas about society. Artists may address issues such as: injustice; poverty; war; oppression; inequality; discrimination; corruption; environmental problems; political power. Main Question What does the artwork say about society? Other questions include: What social problem does the artist address? Who is represented in the artwork? What social groups or institutions are being criticized? What message does the artwork communicate? Does the artist encourage social change? Example Pablo Picasso's Guernica can be interpreted as a powerful response to the suffering caused by war. The distorted figures, chaotic arrangement, and dramatic imagery communicate destruction and human suffering. Through social commentary, the artwork can be understood as an anti-war statement. IV. Additional Art Theories Although formalism, expressionism, and social commentary are important, students can also understand several additional theories. 4. Representational or Imitational Theory This theory emphasizes an artwork's ability to represent or imitate reality. The idea is historically associated with the concept of mimesis, meaning imitation. Questions include: How accurately does the artwork represent reality? Are the human figures realistic? Are perspective, proportion, and anatomy convincing? Does the artwork resemble its subject? Realistic portraits and landscapes are often analyzed through this approach. However, artistic value does not depend entirely on realism because many important artworks are abstract or highly stylized. 5. Institutional Theory Institutional theory argues that something may become recognized as art partly because it is accepted within the art world. The art world may include: artists; critics; museums; galleries; curators; collectors; art historians. This theory becomes useful when discussing modern and contemporary works that may not resemble traditional art. For example, an ordinary object placed in a museum may lead viewers to question: What makes something an artwork? 6. Functional Theory Functional theories emphasize what art does. An artwork may be valuable because it: teaches; communicates; decorates; inspires; entertains; supports rituals; encourages reflection. Under this perspective, the purpose and effect of the artwork are important. 7. Contextual Theory Contextual approaches emphasize the historical, cultural, religious, political, or economic circumstances surrounding an artwork. Questions include: When was the artwork created? Where was it created? What was happening in society at the time? Who commissioned the artwork? What beliefs influenced the artist? Who was the intended audience? Context can dramatically affect interpretation. V. Comparison of Major Art Theories Theory Primary Focus Central Question Formalism Elements and principles of art How is the artwork visually organized? Expressionism Emotion and personal experience What feelings does the artwork communicate? Social Commentary Social and political meaning What does the artwork say about society? Representational Theory Realistic representation How successfully does the work represent reality? Functional Theory Purpose of the artwork What function does the artwork perform? Contextual Theory Historical and cultural background How does context influence the artwork's meaning? Institutional Theory Recognition by the art world Why is this considered art? The important point is that no single theory must completely explain an artwork. Theories provide different perspectives. For example, one painting can be analyzed formally because of its colors and composition, expressively because of its emotional intensity, and socially because it addresses injustice. VI. Applying Art Theories to Specific Artworks Students can use a simple four-step process: Step 1: Describe Identify exactly what can be observed. Questions: What do you see? What colors are present? What people, objects, or symbols appear? What materials were used? Avoid interpretation at this stage. Step 2: Analyze Examine how the elements of art are organized. Consider: line; color; texture; shape; balance; contrast; emphasis; movement. Step 3: Interpret Determine possible meanings. Ask: What message does the artwork communicate? What emotions does it express? What symbols are present? What cultural or social ideas are represented? Step 4: Evaluate Make a reasoned judgment. Ask: Is the artwork effective? What makes it important? Does it successfully communicate its message? Which art theory best helps explain it? VII. Sample Applications Artwork 1: Vincent van Gogh's The Starry Night Formalist Perspective A formalist may focus on the painting's: curved lines; swirling movement; contrasting colors; strong visual rhythm; exaggerated shapes. The night sky dominates the composition and creates energetic movement. Expressionist Perspective An expressive interpretation may emphasize the intense emotional quality of the painting. The exaggerated sky and dramatic colors may suggest powerful emotions, imagination, or inner experience. Social Commentary Perspective Social commentary is less central to this particular artwork because it does not primarily address a specific political or social problem. This demonstrates an important principle: Not every theory is equally useful for every artwork. Artwork 2: Pablo Picasso's Guernica Formalist Analysis Students may observe: fragmented shapes; distorted figures; dramatic contrasts; crowded composition; strong movement; limited color palette. These formal qualities create tension and disorder. Expressionist Analysis The distorted human and animal figures communicate: fear; suffering; panic; grief. The emotional intensity contributes strongly to the artwork's impact. Social Commentary Analysis This is especially important. The artwork is associated with the destruction and suffering caused by war. It may therefore be interpreted as a powerful criticism of violence and conflict. Thus, Guernica demonstrates how one artwork can be studied using several theories. Artwork 3: Juan Luna's Spoliarium The Spoliarium is particularly important when discussing Philippine art. Formalist Perspective Students can examine: dramatic lighting; contrast; composition; scale; human figures; movement; use of color. The arrangement directs attention toward the fallen figures. Expressionist Perspective The artwork may communicate: tragedy; suffering; exhaustion; loss; human vulnerability. Social and Historical Perspective Because of its historical context and later associations with Philippine nationalism, the work may also invite broader interpretations relating to power, oppression, dignity, and historical experience. VIII. Functions and Theories Are Different Students sometimes confuse functions of art with theories of art. A simple distinction is: Function asks: Why was the artwork created or what does it do? Theory asks: How can we understand, interpret, or evaluate the artwork? For example, a political mural may have the social function of raising awareness. However, we can analyze the same mural using: formalism to examine its colors and composition; expressionism to examine emotion; social commentary to interpret its political message. IX. Relationship Between Artist, Artwork, Audience, and Society Art can be understood through four interconnected components: Artist → Artwork → Audience → Society The artist produces the work. The artwork contains visual forms, symbols, ideas, and materials. The audience interprets the artwork based on personal knowledge and experiences. Society and culture influence both the artist and the audience. Because people come from different backgrounds, the same artwork can produce different interpretations. WEEK 3 1. Broad Chronological Development of Art History Art history charts how humanity expresses beliefs, values, and environments over time through visual mediums: Prehistoric & Ancient Art (c. 40,000 BCE – 400 CE): Begins with cave paintings (e.g., Lascaux) and fertility artifacts, evolving into formal artistic conventions in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome that focused on mythology, idealism, human proportion, and architectural grandeur. Medieval Art (c. 500 – 1400): Dominated by religion in Western art (Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic), prioritizing spiritual symbolism and devotional function over naturalism. Renaissance & Baroque (c. 1400 – 1750): Marked by a "rebirth" of classical values, perspective, anatomical realism, and humanism (Da Vinci, Michelangelo), transitioning into the dramatic lighting, emotional intensity, and dynamic motion of the Baroque period. Modern Art (c. 1860s – 1970s): Key movements—including Impressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism—broke away from traditional representation, questioning the very definition and purpose of visual art. Contemporary Art (c. 1970s – Present): Focuses on concepts, diversity, digital mediums, and global issues rather than unified styles, inviting viewer participation and critique. 2. Primary and Secondary Sources in Art History Art historical research relies on evaluating both direct artifacts and academic interpretations: Primary Sources: Direct, firsthand evidence from the time period or artist being studied. The Artwork Itself: The physical object (paintings, sculptures, architecture, textiles) revealing material, medium, brushwork, and condition. Historical Artifacts: Letters, artist diaries, sketchbooks, manifests, contract documents, or contemporary reviews written at the time of creation. Secondary Sources: Analyses, interpretations, or reviews created after the event by non-eyewitnesses. Academic Works: Art history textbooks, peer-reviewed journal articles, biography monographs, and museum exhibition catalogs that analyze primary materials. 3. Art in Its Social, Political, and Economic Contexts Art does not exist in a vacuum; it functions as a mirror and driver of its environment: Social Context: Reflects cultural values, religious doctrines, gender roles, and community identity. For example, medieval stained-glass windows served a educational social function for an illiterate public. Political Context: Serves as propaganda, power projection, or resistance. Rulers throughout history commissioned monumental architecture and portraits to assert legitimacy, while modern artists often use art to protest state policies or social injustices. Economic Context: Driven by patronage, trade, and market systems. The rise of a wealthy merchant class in 17th-century Holland shifted art production away from church altarpieces toward portraits, landscapes, and still lifes bought on an open market. History of Art and Sources of Art In Art Appreciation, the study of the History of Art and Sources of Art helps us understand not only how artworks changed through time, but also why they were created and what they tell us about society. 1. Broad Chronological Development of Art History Art developed alongside human civilization. A simplified chronological view is: Prehistoric Art – cave paintings, carvings, and sculptures created to express beliefs, experiences, and daily life. Ancient Art – Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and other civilizations produced art connected with religion, rulers, mythology, and society. Medieval Art – art was strongly influenced by Christianity and religious institutions. Renaissance Art – renewed interest in classical ideas, humanism, science, and realistic representation. Baroque and Rococo Art – emphasized drama, emotion, movement, decoration, and religious or royal power. Modern Art – artists experimented with new styles, ideas, materials, and ways of representing reality. Contemporary Art – reflects current social issues, technology, culture, identity, politics, and everyday experiences. 2. Primary and Secondary Sources in Art History Primary sources are original materials or direct evidence from the period being studied. Examples include: Original paintings, sculptures, buildings, and photographs Artists' letters, journals, and sketches Historical documents and inscriptions Objects and artifacts Secondary sources are materials created later that analyze, interpret, or discuss primary sources. Examples include: Art history books Scholarly articles Museum catalogs Biographies and documentaries Critical studies of artists and artworks Simple distinction: Primary = direct/original evidence Secondary = interpretation or analysis of evidence 3. Art and Its Social, Political, and Economic Contexts Art does not exist separately from society. The social, political, and economic conditions of a particular period can influence what artists create, what subjects they choose, and how their works are received. Social context – Art can reflect traditions, beliefs, customs, identity, and everyday life. Political context – Art may represent rulers, national identity, political events, or social concerns. Economic context – Wealth, trade, patronage, and access to materials can influence the production and development of art. Key Idea: Art is both a product of its time and a record of human experience. By studying an artwork's history, sources, and context, we can better understand the artwork, the artist, and the society that produced it. WEEK 4 1. The Creative Process in Art The creative process maps the journey from an abstract concept to a finished artwork or craft: Idea / Conceptualization: Sparked by observation, emotion, social issues, or personal experience. The artist or artisan brainstorms, sketches, and researches to refine the core vision. Preparation & Materials Selection: The creator plans the composition and gathers the physical media, tools, and technical equipment required for the project. Execution & Production: The physical transformation phase where skill meets medium. This involves drafting, sculpting, weaving, or painting, often marked by trial, error, and dynamic problem-solving. Refinement & Completion: Final adjustments, detailing, surface finishing, or polishing to ensure the work matches the intended aesthetic and functional standards. Exhibition & Reflection: Presenting the finished product to an audience, allowing viewer feedback, critique, and personal reflection to complete the artistic cycle. 2. Art Mediums, Techniques, and Materials Medium: The primary substance or material used to create an artwork (e.g., oil paint, clay, bronze, digital pixels, watercolor, wood). Technique: The specific manner, method, or technical skill an artist applies to manipulate the medium (e.g., chiaroscuro in painting, coiling in pottery, carving vs. casting in sculpture, cross-hatching in drawing). Materials & Tools: The physical instruments used alongside the medium, such as brushes, chisels, kilns, canvases, palettes, or digital tablets. Artist vs. Artisan: An artist primarily focuses on creating works for aesthetic, emotional, or conceptual expression (fine arts), whereas an artisan is a skilled craftsperson who creates functional or decorative objects (e.g., pottery, woodworking, textiles) using master-level traditional craftsmanship. 3. The Role of the Curator The curator acts as the storyteller, bridge, and custodian between the artwork, the artist, and the public: Selection & Acquisition: Researching, selecting, and collecting artworks or artifacts that align with an exhibition theme or institutional mission. Spatial Design & Presentation: Strategically arranging works in a gallery—considering lighting, sightlines, color schemes, and sequencing—to guide the visitor's physical and emotional experience. Interpretation & Contextualization: Writing wall texts, catalogs, and educational guides that provide historical, cultural, or philosophical context, shaping how the public understands and values the art. Preservation & Stewardship: Ensuring optimal environmental conditions (humidity, lighting, handling) to preserve artworks for future generations. Art and Artisan: Process, Medium, Technique, and Curation In Art Appreciation, understanding how art is made and presented helps us appreciate not only the finished artwork but also the artist's creativity, skills, choices, and purpose. 1. Creative Process in Making Art The creative process refers to the steps an artist goes through in developing an artwork. It may include: Idea or Inspiration – identifying a subject, message, or concept. Planning – deciding the composition, materials, colors, and techniques. Creation – transforming the idea into an actual artwork. Revision – making adjustments or improvements. Finalization – completing and preparing the artwork for presentation. The process may differ from one artist to another. Creativity can involve experimentation, imagination, problem-solving, and personal expression. 2. Art Mediums, Techniques, and Materials Medium refers to the material or form used to create an artwork. Examples include: Medium Examples Painting Oil, acrylic, watercolor Drawing Pencil, charcoal, ink Sculpture Clay, wood, stone, metal Printmaking Woodcut, engraving, lithography Photography Digital or film photography Digital Art Computer-generated images and digital illustrations Technique refers to the method or way an artist uses a medium. For example, a painter may use blending, layering, or brushwork, while a sculptor may use carving, modeling, or casting. The choice of medium, material, and technique affects the appearance, texture, meaning, and overall effect of an artwork. 3. Role of the Curator A curator is a professional who selects, organizes, researches, and presents artworks in a museum, gallery, or exhibition. The curator helps shape how audiences experience and understand art by: Selecting artworks for an exhibition Organizing artworks according to a theme or concept Providing labels, descriptions, and historical information Designing the arrangement and flow of the exhibition Connecting artworks to their cultural and historical contexts Therefore, curation influences how viewers see, interpret, and appreciate artworks. Key Idea Art is more than the finished product. It involves the artist's creative process, the choice of medium and technique, and the curation and presentation of the artwork. Understanding these elements allows us to appreciate both the skill of the artisan and the meaning of the art.

Understanding Geography and Its Implications The Nature of Geography Geography transcends mere location; it investigates the reasons behind spatial phenomena and the interplay of social forces that shape places. Maps are not neutral; they embed cultural and ideological biases that influence perceptions of space. For example, the Mercator projection distorts the size of landmasses, affecting our understanding of global geography. Core concepts include human/environment relationships, space, place, region, movement, landscape, and location, each contributing to a comprehensive understanding of geography. Space is both a measurable entity (e.g., coordinates) and a cultural construct influenced by language and technology, exemplified by the concept of space-time compression. The Lefebvre triad illustrates the complexity of spatial understanding: spatial practice (how space is used), representations of space (how space is conceptualized), and representational spaces (the lived experiences of space). The concept of scale is crucial; phenomena like global warming manifest differently across various scales, challenging the notion that 'global' is inherently dominant. Globalization and Its Challenges Globalization fosters closer relationships between distant places, but its effects are uneven, contradicting the 'flat world' argument that location is becoming irrelevant. The course critiques the neoliberal perspective that reduces all values to monetary worth, particularly in education, as discussed in Deresiewicz's 'The Neoliberal Arts'. The 'End of Geography' argument posits that technological advancements diminish the importance of location, yet the course emphasizes that geographical context remains significant in understanding social dynamics. Globalization's impact is not uniform; it creates winners and losers, necessitating a critical examination of its implications on local cultures and economies. The interconnectedness of global economies can lead to cultural homogenization, raising concerns about the preservation of local identities and practices. Historical context: The rise of globalization can be traced back to colonialism and the expansion of trade networks, which laid the groundwork for contemporary global interactions. The Neoliberal Arts and Higher Education The Impact of Neoliberalism on Education Neoliberalism has transformed American higher education, prioritizing marketable skills over intellectual growth, as articulated by Deresiewicz. The shift from mission statements focused on learning to vague buzzwords reflects a broader trend of commodifying education, where the value of knowledge is measured by its economic utility. David Brooks identifies three purposes of college: commercial (career preparation), cognitive (learning to think), and moral (developing personal beliefs), with only the commercial purpose being widely recognized today. The decline of the moral purpose in education is evident in the increasing focus on vocational training at the expense of critical thinking and the humanities. Historical rebuttal: The moral purpose of education has deep roots in American history, dating back to land-grant colleges and the G.I. Bill, which aimed to democratize access to education. The concept of 'learned helplessness' illustrates how students internalize market-driven narratives, feeling powerless against economic forces that dictate their career paths. The Role of Buzzwords in Education Buzzwords like leadership, service, and creativity are critiqued for perpetuating neoliberal assumptions and undermining genuine educational values. Leadership is framed as creating a hierarchy, where a select few lead while the majority follow, detracting from the ideal of collective citizenship. Service is often portrayed as a benevolent act by the privileged, reinforcing social hierarchies rather than fostering genuine community engagement. Creativity is redefined within a business context, limiting it to predetermined outcomes rather than encouraging open-ended exploration and innovation. The push for technocratic solutions within a static market framework fails to address pressing issues like climate change and social inequality, which require transformative approaches. Counterbalancing institutions, such as the arts and democracy, are increasingly subsumed by market logic, leading to a homogenization of cultural and educational values. Discussion and Reflection Critical Questions for Consideration Should moral education, as defined by Deresiewicz, be a fundamental purpose of higher education? How do personal experiences reflect the 'retrofitting' of educational values towards neoliberal ideals? In what ways can students and educators advocate for a return to the intellectual and moral purposes of education? What role do counterbalancing institutions play in resisting the commodification of education? How can we redefine success in education beyond marketable skills to include critical thinking and civic engagement? What strategies can be employed to challenge the prevailing narratives of learned helplessness among students? Neoliberalism and Higher Education Conceptual Framework of Neoliberalism Deresiewicz argues that neoliberalism is a choice rather than an inevitable outcome, suggesting that societal structures can be altered through collective action. Neoliberalism emphasizes market-driven solutions, often at the expense of public goods and services, particularly in education. The commodification of higher education leads to a focus on profit rather than the intellectual and moral development of students. Proposed Solutions to Neoliberalism in Education Deresiewicz advocates for treating higher education as a right, promoting high-quality, low- or no-cost public education. He emphasizes the need to restore the intellectual and moral purposes of education, moving away from purely market-driven motives. Collective student action is highlighted as a means to challenge the neoliberal framework and advocate for public solutions. Discussion Questions and Their Implications Should moral education be a fundamental purpose of higher education? This question invites reflection on the role of ethics in academic institutions. The concept of 'retrofitting' suggests adapting existing structures to better serve public interests; students are encouraged to reflect on their experiences with this. Understanding these themes is crucial as they set the stage for discussions on political economy later in the course. Nations and States: Definitions and Dynamics Definitions and Distinctions A nation is defined as an 'imagined community' characterized by shared identity elements such as language, history, and values. A state is a politically organized entity with a defined territory, government, and permanent population, distinct from the concept of a nation. The term 'nation-state' refers to the overlap of these two concepts, though real-world examples often reveal discrepancies. Historical Context and Evolution The Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked a significant shift in the understanding of statehood, establishing the principles of territoriality and sovereignty. Prior to this, populations were defined by territory; post-Westphalia, territory began to define populations, influencing global governance. Colonialism played a crucial role in spreading the nation-state model worldwide, often disregarding existing cultural and ethnic identities. Contemporary Challenges to Nation-States The concept of territoriality is challenged by globalization, migration, and technological advancements, leading to phenomena like deterritorialization. Non-state actors, such as the UN and IMF, play significant roles in global governance, often complicating traditional state authority. The rise of independence movements (e.g., Catalonia, Scotland) reflects growing discontent with established nation-states and their governance. The Future of Nation-States Independence Movements and Globalization Recent independence movements are fueled by historical grievances and the perceived artificiality of nation-states, often drawn from colonial legacies. The decline of interstate wars has created a more favorable environment for secessionist movements, as seen in Scotland and Catalonia. Globalization has lowered the costs of independence, allowing smaller regions to seek autonomy without the need for large military forces. The Role of Technology and Identity Technology, particularly social media, has facilitated democratic uprisings and the organization of independence movements. However, rather than unifying populations, the internet has often highlighted differences, leading to increased tribalism and identity politics. The concept of nations being 'made' rather than 'given' suggests that identity can be constructed through education, media, and political narratives. The Concept of 'Lands in Limbo' Regions like Nagorno-Karabakh and Abkhazia exemplify the challenges of non-recognition, facing economic isolation and high unemployment rates. The difficulty of gaining international recognition for breakaway states is often tied to the interests of powerful nations, which fear encouraging separatism within their borders. The tension between self-determination and multiculturalism raises questions about the future of nation-states and the inclusivity of national identities. The Role of Technology and Nation-States Technology and Social Dynamics The internet was anticipated to unify people, yet it has led to increased tribalism as individuals focus on differences rather than commonalities. The phenomenon of 'secession from the public good' highlights how individuals withdrawing from public institutions, like schools, undermines national cohesion and identity. The nation-state's survival is attributed to its monopoly on violence and territorial defense, necessitating active democratic engagement at all levels of governance. Global Challenges and Nation-State Dynamics Global issues such as climate change require international cooperation, which becomes increasingly complex with the involvement of multiple nation-states. Alternatives to traditional nation-states include communitarian models, such as the Kurdish region in Syria, and proposals for a stronger United Nations or European Union-style governance. Nation-building is an ongoing process, as seen in Pakistan's struggle to define its identity post-partition, reflecting the complexities of national narratives and the role of religion in politics. Foundations of Political Economy Historical Context of Political Economy The term 'economy' originates from the Greek 'oikonomos', meaning household manager, indicating the historical link between state management and economic relations. The separation of the economy as a distinct sphere emerged around 300 years ago, leading to a perception of economic relations as superior to other social relations. Early political economists viewed the state as a manager of resources, including food, infrastructure, and education, shaping societal relations. Economic Frameworks and Theories Neoclassical economics emphasizes rational, profit-maximizing individuals and the market's inherent logic, favoring private property rights. Marxian economics critiques this view, focusing on class struggles and the ownership of surplus value by capitalists, highlighting the labor-capital contradiction. Both frameworks represent forms of economic determinism, suggesting that market forces or class relations dictate societal outcomes. Globalization and Economic Structures Evolution of Global Economic Systems Globalization is propelled by advancements in communication, transportation, and logistics, yet it remains uneven due to digital divides and political choices. Historical progression from feudalism to post-Fordism illustrates shifts in economic structures, including the transition from industrial to service economies. Commodification in modern economies emphasizes the creation of desire over mere production, leading to cycles of innovation and consumption. Global Economic Hierarchies The classification of countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery highlights disparities in capital management and resource supply. The Apple example illustrates how core countries benefit from R&D while peripheral countries provide cheap labor for assembly, maximizing profits at the core. The rise of platform capitalism and the gig economy raises questions about job stability and the distribution of economic benefits. Population Dynamics and Theories Malthusian Theory and Critiques Malthus's principle posits that population grows geometrically while food supply increases arithmetically, leading to checks on population growth. Elwell's reinterpretation of Malthus suggests that checks on population are constant and that productivity gains lead to population increases rather than simple overshoot. Robbins critiques the Malthusian narrative, arguing that affluence and technology play a more significant role in resource consumption than sheer population numbers. Historical Population Controls and Transitions The 'Four Horsemen' of pre-industrial society—disease, famine, war, and conquest—historically regulated population growth. The Demographic Transition Model illustrates the decline of death rates followed by birth rates, influenced by urbanization and women's education. Criticisms of the model highlight its Eurocentric bias and the oversimplification of complex societal interactions, particularly regarding colonialism and exploitation.

Basic Assumptions, Functions, Nature of Art, and Humanities

Biological Approach: Assumptions, Concepts, Genetics, and Inheritance

Key Assumptions

Hooke's Law Assumptions

Philosophical Assumptions and Dominant Paradigms

Chapter 3. Ethics and Social Responsibility iStock.com/Shaun Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you will be able to . . . 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society 3-2 Explain the concept of ethical behavior 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business 3-4 Discuss corporate social responsibility 3-5 Describe the arguments for and against social responsibility 3-6 Explain cause-related marketing 3-1. Determinants of a Civil Society 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society Have you ever stopped to think about the social glue that binds society together? That is, what factors keep people and organizations from running amok and doing harm, and what factors create order in a society like ours? The answer lies in social control, defined as any means used to maintain behavioral norms and regulate conflict. Behavioral norms are standards of proper or acceptable behavior. Social control is part of your life at every level, from your family to your local community, to the nation, to the global civilization. Several modes of social control are important to marketing: Ethics: Ethics are the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an individual or a group. Ethical rules and guidelines, along with customs and traditions, provide principles of right action. Laws: Often, ethical rules and guidelines are codified into law. Laws governments create are then enforced by governmental authority. This process is how the dictum “Thou shall not steal” has become part of formal law throughout the land. Law, however, is not a perfect mechanism for ensuring good corporate and employee behavior. Laws often address only the lowest common denominator of socially acceptable behavior. In other words, just because something is legal does not mean that it is ethical. For example, Texas Pete is a hot sauce sold in grocery stores across the country. The packaging for Texas Pete features a lone star, just as the Texas state flag does, and a cowboy holding a lasso. The packaging, along with the name of the product, seems to indicate that the product is made in the state of Texas, or that it is at least made from ingredients sourced in Texas. Texas Pete, however, is produced by TW Garner Foods Company, a company headquartered in North Carolina, more than 800 miles from Texas. A class action lawsuit was filed against the company for false advertising. The lawsuit claimed that consumers were paying a premium price based on their belief that the product originated in Texas, which has a reputation for spicy food. Texas Pete does not explicitly state that the product is manufactured in Texas and actually lists TW Garner Foods’ North Carolina address on the bottle, but the name of the product and the packaging certainly suggest that it is a genuine Texas-based product and could be misleading to consumers. While this presentation is technically legal, is this ethical? What’s your opinion? Here’s another example: In every state, littering is a problem—and has been for many years. Threats of fines and even jail time are shrugged off as people toss food wrappers, plastic straws and cups, and everything else imaginable out the car window. Many companies are implementing new policies to try and curtail the negative effects of littering. For example, Starbucks in California no longer automatically gives straws and plastic cutlery to customers, but, rather, will only provide these items when customers specifically request them. Nicole Glass Photography/Shutterstock.com Formal and Informal Groups: Businesses, professional organizations (such as the American Marketing Association and the American Medical Association), and clubs (such as Shriners and Ducks Unlimited) all have codes of conduct. These codes prescribe acceptable and desired behaviors for their members. Self-Regulation: Self-regulation involves the voluntary acceptance of standards established by nongovernmental entities, such as the American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) or the National Association of Manufacturers. The AAAA has a self-regulation arm that deals with deceptive advertising. Other associations have regulations relating to child labor, environmental issues, conservation, and a host of other issues. The Media: In an open, democratic society, the media play a key role in informing the public about the actions of individuals and organizations—both good and bad. Laundress, a luxury laundry detergent brand that claims to be better for you and better for the environment, came under fire after issuing a safety notice for almost all of its products. The company released the notice on its social media accounts but provided very little information about the reason for the notice. It was later revealed that the majority of the products the brand manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. 3-2a. Ethical Theories People usually base their individual choice of ethical theory on their life experiences. The following are some of the ethical theories that apply to marketing. Deontology The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This theory means that a person will follow their obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will always keep their promises to a friend and follow the law. A person who follows this theory will produce very consistent decisions because those decisions will be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontological theory is not necessarily concerned with the welfare of others. For example, suppose a salesperson has decided that it is their ethical duty (and very practical) to always be on time for meetings with clients. Today they are running late. How are they supposed to drive? Is the deontologist supposed to speed, breaking the law to uphold their duty to society, or is the deontologist supposed to arrive at their meeting late, breaking their duty to be on time? This scenario of conflicting obligations does not lead us to a clear, ethically correct resolution, nor does it protect the welfare of others from the deontologist’s decision. Utilitarianism The utilitarian ethical theory is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action. To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the ethically correct choice. One benefit of this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and use a point system to determine which choice is more beneficial for more people. This point system provides a logical and rational argument for each decision and allows a person to use it on a case-by-case basis. There are two types of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism adheres exactly to the definition of utilitarianism as just described. In act utilitarianism, a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or societal constraints like laws. Rule utilitarianism, however, considers the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and doing good at the same time. As is true of all ethical theories, however, both act and rule utilitarianism contain numerous flaws. Inherent in both are the flaws associated with predicting the future. Although people can use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no human being can be certain that their predictions will come true. This uncertainty can lead to unexpected results, making the utilitarian look unethical as time passes because their choice did not benefit the most people, as they had predicted. Another assumption a utilitarian must make is that they can compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale. However, comparing material gains such as money against intangible gains such as happiness is impossible because their qualities differ so greatly. Casuist The casuist ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes. This theory allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best possible solution according to others’ experiences. Usually, one will find examples that represent the extremes of the situation so that a compromise can be reached to include the wisdom gained from the previous situations. One drawback to this ethical theory is that there may not be a set of similar examples for a given ethical dilemma. Perhaps that which is controversial and ethically questionable is new and unexpected. Along the same line of thinking, this theory assumes that the results of the current ethical dilemma will be similar to the results in the examples. This assumption may not be true and would greatly hinder the effectiveness of applying this ethical theory. Moral Relativism Moral relativism is a belief in time-and-place ethics, that is, the truth of a moral judgment is relative to the judging person or group. According to a moral relativist, for example, stealing is not always wrong—if you are a parent and your child is starving, stealing a loaf of bread is ethically correct. The proper resolution to ethical dilemmas is based on weighing the competing factors at the moment and then deciding to take the lesser of the evils as the resolution. Moral relativists do not believe in absolute rules. Their beliefs center on the pressure of the moment and whether the pressure justifies the action taken. Virtue Ethics Aristotle and Plato taught that solving ethical dilemmas requires training—that individuals solve ethical dilemmas when they develop and nurture a set of virtues. A virtue is a character trait valued as being good. Aristotle taught the importance of cultivating virtue in his students and then having them solve ethical dilemmas using those virtues once they had become an integral part of his students’ being through their virtue training. Some modern philosophers have embraced this notion of virtue and have developed lists of what constitutes a virtuous businessperson. Some common virtues for businesspeople are self-discipline, friendliness, caring, courage, compassion, trust, responsibility, honesty, determination, enthusiasm, and humility. You may see other lists of virtues that are longer or shorter, but here is a good start for core business virtues. 3-3. Ethical Behavior in Business 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business Depending on which, if any, ethical theory a businessperson has accepted and uses in their daily conduct, the action they take may vary. For example, faced with bribing a foreign official to get a critically needed contract or shutting down a factory and laying off a thousand workers, a person following a deontology strategy would not pay the bribe. Why? A deontologist always follows the law. However, a moral relativist would probably pay the bribe. While the boundaries of what is legal and what is not are often fairly clear (e.g., do not run a red light, do not steal money from a bank, and do not kill anyone), the boundaries of ethical decision making are predicated on which ethical theory one is following. The law typically relies on juries to determine if an act is legal or illegal. Society determines whether an action is ethical or unethical. In 2022, Oracle, an information technology company, was forced to pay $23 million to settle charges of violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The U.S. Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) allege that subsidiaries of the company in India, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates used discount schemes and sham marketing reimbursements to finance funds that were then used to bribe foreign officials. Michael Egbert, corporate communications VP for Oracle, stated that “The conduct outlined by the SEC is contrary to our core values and clear policies, and if we identify such behavior, we will take appropriate action.” Morals are the rules people develop as a result of cultural values and norms. Culture is a socializing force that dictates what is right and wrong. Moral standards may also reflect the laws and regulations that affect social and economic behavior. Thus, morals can be considered a foundation of ethical behavior. Morals are usually characterized as good or bad. “Good” and “bad” have many different connotations. One such connotation is “effective” and “ineffective.” A good salesperson makes or exceeds the assigned quota. If the salesperson sells a new computer system or an OLED TV to a disadvantaged consumer—knowing full well that the person cannot keep up the monthly payments—is that still a good salesperson? What if the sale enables the salesperson to exceed their quota? “Good” and “bad” can also refer to “conforming” and “deviant” behaviors. A doctor who runs large ads offering discounts on open-heart surgery would be considered bad, or unprofessional, because they are not conforming to the norms of the medical profession. “Good” and “bad” also express the distinction between law-abiding and criminal behavior. And, finally, different religions define “good” and “bad” in markedly different ways. A Muslim who eats pork are considered bad by other Muslims, for example. Religion is just one of the many factors that affect a businessperson’s ethics. Academic researchers have examined how consumers react to the trade-offs between highly competent but less moral service providers and less competent but highly moral service providers. Their study found that consumers valued competence more than morality. In other words, purchasers of services want someone who can do the job right . . . even if that person might be a bit shady. For example, a house-painting company that does excellent work but has had some legal problems in the past would be preferred over a mediocre painting company that has never had complaints or legal problems. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3c. Ethical Guidelines and Training In recent years, many organizations have become more interested in ethical issues. Yet interest and action are not always the same thing. Although some companies are now appointing a Chief Ethics Officer (sometimes called a Chief Compliance Officer), this role is still not present at many companies. It is very common, however, for companies of various sizes to develop a code of ethics as a guideline to help marketing managers and other employees make better decisions. Creating ethics guidelines has several advantages as follows: A code of ethics helps employees identify what their firm recognizes as acceptable business practices. A code of ethics can be an effective internal control of behavior, which is more desirable than external controls, such as government regulation. A written code helps employees avoid confusion when determining whether their decisions are ethical. The process of formulating the code of ethics facilitates discussion among employees about what is right and wrong and ultimately leads to better decisions. Ethics training is an effective way to help employees put good ethics into practice. The Ethics & Compliance Initiative’s State of Ethics and Compliance in the Workplace Report found that 84 percent of employees who work for a company with a strong ethics and compliance program perceived their organization as having a strong ethical culture. Comparatively, only 13 percent of employees working for an organization classified as having an underdeveloped ethics and compliance program felt that their organization had a strong ethical culture. Strong ethical cultures give employees the appropriate guidance to handle situations involving potential wrongdoing and lead to lower rates of misconduct. Still, simply giving employees a long list of dos and don’ts does not really help employees navigate the gray areas or adapt to a changing world market. In Carson City, Nevada, all governmental lobbyists are required to attend a course on ethics and policy before they can meet with lawmakers. The training outlines exactly how and when lobbyists are allowed to interact with lawmakers and how to report any money they spend. A clear understanding of ethical expectations is essential to an industry like lobbying, where illicit—often illegal—actions are taken to promote individual causes. Because artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming so pervasive in marketing interactions with consumers, it must also be taught about ethical decision making. Already Microsoft, Adobe, and IBM, along with smaller firms and start-ups, are developing ethical guidelines and best practices for their AI use. Type “gymnast” into Google’s image search and the vast majority of the top results are female, as are the results for “nurse.” The term “parents” shows almost exclusively heterosexual couples. The results of these searches are driven by AI, which isn’t explicitly taught to discriminate. Rather, these prejudices are the result of the data submitted to the AI algorithm. “There is increasing concern that algorithms used by modern AI systems produce discriminatory outputs, presumably because they are trained on data in which societal biases are embedded,” notes Madalina Vlasceanu, an Assistant Professor of Psychology at New York University, whose research explores biases in internet search algorithms and the potential impact of these biased search results on society. The Most Ethical Companies Each year, Ethisphere magazine (targeted toward top management and focused on ethical leadership) examines more than 5,000 companies in 30 separate industries, seeking the world’s most ethical companies. It then lists the top 100. The magazine uses a rigorous format to identify true ethical leadership. A few of the selected winners are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Selected Winners of the World’s Most Ethical Companies Company Industry Country 3M Industrial manufacturing USA Accenture Consulting Services Ireland Aflac Accident and life insurance USA Apple Technology USA Colgate-Palmolive Consumer products USA Dell Technology USA EDP Energy and utilities Portugal General Motors Company Automotive USA Illy Food, beverages, and agriculture Italy Kao Health and beauty Japan L’Oreal Health and beauty France Mastercard Payment Services USA Natura Health and beauty Brazil Parsons Engineering and design USA Salesforce Application software USA U.S. Bank Banks USA Workday Software & Services USA Source: “The 2022 World’s Most Ethical Companies Honorees List,” https://worldsmostethicalcompanies.com/honorees/ (accessed January 30, 2023).

modelling assumptions

Testing Assumption and Log Transformation

African Kingdoms and Atlantic Slave Trade

Cognitive Psychology Key Concepts and Assumptions

OLS Properties and assumptions

Assumptions of the CLRM

Key Assumptions

Accounting principles, assumtions, and constraints

Core Assumptions