Ancient and Medieval Ethiopia Summary

Aksumite Society

  • Social classes were divided based on occupation.
  • The majority were peasants, with artisans, merchants, and slaves comprising the rest.

Economy of Aksum

  • Agriculture was the base.
  • Internal and international trade were significant income sources.
  • Key exports: ivory, tortoise shell, slaves, gold, and live animals.
  • Key imports: textiles, glassware, jewellery, copper sheets, and drinking vessels.
  • Aksumites dominated Red Sea trade, maintaining relations with Egypt, the Mediterranean, Arabia, Syria, and India.

Aksumite Coins

  • Aksumite kings minted coins from the 3rd to 7th centuries AD in gold, silver, and bronze.
  • One of the first African governments to issue its own coins.
  • Coins featured Geez and Greek inscriptions, busts of kings, and symbols.
    • Pre-Christianity: crescent and disc.
    • Post-Christianity: cross.

Military Power

  • Aksum built strong military to protect trade routes, utilizing ship-making technology.
  • Expanded territory, including parts of the Arabian Peninsula, to control Red Sea trade.

External Relations

  • Established diplomatic and commercial relations with the Greek-Roman world, Middle East, Near East, and countries around the Indian Ocean.

Introduction of Christianity

  • Introduced in the 4th century AD during King Ezana's reign (c. 330 AD).
  • Fremnatos (Abba Salama) converted King Ezana and became the first Bishop of Ethiopia.
  • Christianity became the state religion, fostering relations with the Byzantine Empire.

Expansion of Christianity

  • Initially restricted to King Ezana's court.
  • The Nine Saints, arriving in the late 5th century AD, spread Christianity to the masses.
  • Contributions of the Nine Saints:
    • Built churches.
    • Translated the Bible from Greek to Geez.
    • Introduced monastic life.
    • Converted many people.

Legacies of Aksumite Civilization

  • Construction of monumental stelae (obelisks) for religious purposes or as tombs for kings.

Zagwe Dynasty

  • Founded around 1150 AD by the Agaw people after the fall of Aksum.
  • Founder: Marara (Marra Takla Haymanot).
  • Initial center at Adefa, later moved to Lalibela.
  • Territory included Aksumite highland provinces, Wollo, and Northern Shewa; presence extended to Lake Tana in the west.

Economy of Zagwe Dynasty

  • Based on agriculture.
  • Trade relations with Egypt and other countries through Zeila (Somali coast).
  • Key exports: slaves, ivory, and rare spices.
  • Key imports: cotton, silver and copper vessels and newly minted coins.

Reign of Lalibela and Church Building

  • Zagwe rulers focused on church construction, especially the eleven rock-hewn churches in Lalibela.
  • Churches recognized by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage site.
  • Churches intended to replicate Jerusalem in Ethiopia.

Cultural Continuity

  • Aksumite traditions continued during the Zagwe dynasty.
    • Christianity remained the state religion.
    • Geez remained the church and writing language.
    • Relations with Muslim rulers of Egypt continued.

Downfall of the Zagwe Dynasty

  • Internal Factors: No peaceful political succession.
  • External Factors: Resistance from Semitic-speaking peoples of Tigre and Amhara.
  • Yekuno-Amlak, supported by the Christian church, overthrew the last Zagwe king in 1270, restoring the Solomonic dynasty.

Gondarine Period

  • Highland Christian kings traditionally had mobile capitals.
  • The Gondarine period (1636-1769) marked by rulers reigning from Gondar, founded by King Fasiledes in 1636.
  • Gondar became the political, economic, and cultural center.

Achievements of Gondar

  • Architecture: castles, palaces, churches, bridges, and swimming pools were constructed.
  • Golden Age: 1636-1706, during the reigns of Fasiledes, Yohannes I, and Iyasu I.
  • Urban Development: Population growth and diverse communities.
  • Commercial Importance: Center of active trade with daily and weekly markets, dominated by Ethiopian Muslims (Jabarti).

Social structure of Gondar

  • Divided into zones or quarters, with separate areas for Muslim (Alem) and Falasha communities.
  • Foreign communities: Armenians, Greeks, and Indians.

Decline of Royal Power

  • Iyasu I (Iyasu the Great) was the last strong king before political disorder.
  • Assassination of Iyasu I in 1706 led to power struggles and the rise of regional warlords.
  • Itege Mentewab and Ras Welde Leul controlled power during the reign of Iyasu II, undermining the king's authority.

Zemene Mesafint (Era of Warlords) (1769-1855)

  • Period of political disorder starting with the death of Iyoas in 1769.
  • Kings were puppets.
  • Power struggle between Itege Mentewab and Wubit.
  • Ras Michael Sehul invited to maintain order but became a kingmaker.

Main Features of Zemene Mesafint

  • Extreme actions by Ras Michael led to opposition.
  • Regional lords competed for power.
  • Oromo family (Yejju dynasty) controlled the position of Ras Bitweded from 1786.
  • Religious and political divisions, weak central authority, continuous civil war, and social disorder.
  • Wars affected development by reducing productivity and harming trade.
  • Ended in 1855 by Tewodros II.

Islam in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa

  • Sultanate: A Muslim state ruled by a Sultan
  • First contact: 615 A.D., Prophet Mohammed sent refugees to Aksum, King Ella Saham permitted them to live peacefully.
  • Emergence of Muslim Sultanates
  • Trade and Islam lead to the emergence of Muslim Sultanates in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa by the 8th century A.D.
  • Key Sultanates: Dahlak, Shewa, Ifat, Adal, Fatagar, Dawaro.

Gateways of Islam

  • Dahlak Island: Islam established on the Red Sea coast.
  • Zeila: Most important gateway for Islam into interior regions.

Sultanate of Shewa

  • Founded c. 896 A.D. by the Mahkzumite dynasty.
  • Located west of the Awash River.
  • Its worst enemy was Ifat

Sultanate of Dahlak

  • Formed in the 10th century A.D.
  • Economy based on trade.

Sultanate of Ifat

  • Ruled by the Walasma Dynasty, emerged in the late 13th century.
  • Founder: Umar Walasma.
  • Located northeast of the Shewan plateau and was the strongest Muslim sultanate.
  • Monopolized Zeila trade.

Sultanate of Adal

  • Formed in the late 14th century by descendants of the Walasma family.
  • Constant conflict with the Christian state.
  • Famous revolt led by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim (Ahmed Gragn) in the 16th century.