CT2 Mid Sem

What is pain?

An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.

What is acute pain?

Pain lasting less than 3 months, usually related to injury, surgery, or illness.

What is chronic pain?

Pain lasting longer than 3 months and often associated with chronic disease.

What is referred pain?

Pain felt in a different location from the source due to shared nerve pathways.

What is hyperalgesia?

Increased sensitivity to painful stimuli.

What is allodynia?

Pain caused by normally non‑painful stimuli.

What is breakthrough pain?

Sudden pain that occurs between scheduled analgesic doses.

What is nociceptive pain?

Pain caused by tissue damage activating nociceptors.

What is neuropathic pain?

Pain caused by damage to the nervous system, often burning or electric‑like.

What is psychogenic pain?

Pain influenced by psychological factors without a clear physical cause.

What does the gate control theory explain?

How a gate in the spinal cord regulates whether pain signals reach the brain.

What is the first‑order neuron in the pain pathway?

Carries pain signals from the injury site to the spinal cord.

What is the second‑order neuron in the pain pathway?

Carries pain signals from the spinal cord to the thalamus.

What is the third‑order neuron in the pain pathway?

Carries pain signals from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex.

What is the role of the cerebral cortex in pain?

It is where pain is consciously perceived.

What are opioid agonists?

Drugs that activate opioid receptors to produce analgesia.

Give two examples of opioid agonists.

Morphine and fentanyl.

How do opioids relieve pain?

They bind to opioid receptors in the CNS and reduce pain signal transmission.

Name the main opioid receptor types.

Mu, kappa, and delta receptors.

What is a common acute side effect of opioids?

Respiratory depression.

Name another acute opioid side effect.

Sedation.

What pupil change occurs with opioid use?

Pinpoint pupils (miosis).

Name a gastrointestinal opioid side effect.

Constipation.

What is opioid tolerance?

Reduced response to opioids after repeated use requiring higher doses.

What is opioid dependence?

A physiological adaptation causing withdrawal symptoms if the drug is stopped.

What is an opioid overdose?

Excess opioid activity causing severe CNS and respiratory depression.

What medication reverses opioid overdose?

Naloxone.

How does naloxone work?

It competitively blocks opioid receptors.

What are possible naloxone side effects?

Withdrawal symptoms, agitation, and return of pain.

What are non‑opioid analgesics?

Pain medications that do not act on opioid receptors.

Give two examples of non‑opioid analgesics.

Paracetamol and ibuprofen.

What are NSAIDs?

Non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs that reduce pain and inflammation.

How do NSAIDs work?

They inhibit prostaglandin production.

What is paracetamol used for?

Mild to moderate pain and fever.

What is a major risk of high paracetamol doses?

Liver toxicity.

Why must opioid doses be adjusted in liver failure?

Reduced metabolism can cause drug accumulation and toxicity.

What are adjunct analgesics?

Drugs used alongside analgesics to improve pain control.

Give an example of an antidepressant used for chronic pain.

Amitriptyline.

Give an example of an anticonvulsant used for neuropathic pain.

Gabapentin.

Why combine opioid and non‑opioid analgesics?

To improve pain relief and reduce opioid dose and side effects.

What are anaesthetic agents?

Drugs that produce loss of sensation and sometimes consciousness.

What is the aim of general anaesthesia?

Unconsciousness, analgesia, muscle relaxation, and amnesia.

Give an example of an anaesthetic gas.

Nitrous oxide.

What are corticosteroids?

Anti‑inflammatory drugs that reduce inflammation and swelling.

Give two examples of corticosteroids.

Dexamethasone and prednisone.

What are colony‑stimulating factors?

Drugs that stimulate bone marrow to produce blood cells.

Give an example of a colony‑stimulating factor.

Filgrastim.

What is chemotherapy?

Drug therapy that kills rapidly dividing cells.

Why does chemotherapy affect healthy cells?

Because some healthy cells also divide rapidly.

Name two healthy tissues affected by chemotherapy.

Hair follicles and bone marrow.

What is a common chemotherapy side effect?

Hair loss.

What blood cell problem can chemotherapy cause?

Bone marrow suppression.

What is febrile neutropenia?

Fever with low neutrophil count after chemotherapy.

Why is febrile neutropenia dangerous?

Patients are highly vulnerable to infection.

How is febrile neutropenia treated?

Immediate broad‑spectrum antibiotics.

Why is chemotherapy given in cycles?

To allow healthy cells to recover between treatments.

What is combination chemotherapy?

Using multiple chemotherapy drugs together.

Why use combination chemotherapy?

To increase effectiveness and reduce drug resistance.

What are monoclonal antibodies?

Targeted drugs that bind to specific cancer cell antigens.

Give an example of a monoclonal antibody.

Rituximab.

What does Rituximab target?

CD20 antigen on B cells.

What therapy uses monoclonal antibodies?

Targeted immunotherapy.

What is hormone therapy in cancer?

Treatment that blocks or alters hormones that fuel certain cancers.

Give an example of hormone therapy.

Tamoxifen.

What is neoadjuvant chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy given before surgery.

Why is neoadjuvant chemotherapy used?

To shrink tumours before surgery.

What is adjuvant chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy given after surgery.

Why is adjuvant chemotherapy used?

To destroy remaining cancer cells.

What is metastasis?

Spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body.

How do cancer cells spread in metastasis?

Through blood or lymphatic systems.

What are benign tumours?

Non‑cancerous tumours that do not spread.

What are malignant tumours?

Cancerous tumours that invade and spread.

What are oncogenes?

Mutated genes that promote uncontrolled cell growth.

What are tumour suppressor genes?

Genes that normally stop cell division or trigger apoptosis.

What happens when tumour suppressor genes fail?

Cells divide uncontrollably leading to cancer.

What role do DNA repair genes play?

They fix damaged DNA to prevent mutations.

What happens if DNA repair genes fail?

Mutations accumulate and cancer risk increases.

What is radiation therapy?

Treatment that uses high‑energy radiation to damage cancer cell DNA.

How does radiation therapy kill cancer cells?

By preventing them from dividing and causing cell death.

What causes cervical cancer?

Persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV).

How can cervical cancer be prevented?

HPV vaccination and regular Pap smears.

What is autosomal recessive inheritance?

A disorder occurs when two recessive genes are inherited.

If both parents are carriers, what is the chance of an affected child?

25%

If both parents are carriers, what is the chance a child is a carrier?

50%

If both parents are carriers, what is the chance a child is unaffected?

25%

What is X‑linked recessive inheritance?

A disorder caused by a mutation on the X chromosome.

Why are males more affected by X‑linked disorders?

They only have one X chromosome.

If a mother is a carrier, what is the chance a son is affected?

50%

If a mother is a carrier, what is the chance a daughter is a carrier?

50%