modern middle east final exam

Islamophobia

Prejudice, discrimination, or hostility toward Muslims and Islam often to stereotypes, especially after 9/11 - Leads to discrimination and violence Against Muslim communities worldwide

Antisemitism

Prejudice or hostility toward Jews, historically tied to religious racial and political discrimination — Key factor in Zionism’s rise - has Caused persecution, including the holocaust and fuels conflicts like the Israeli Palestinian one

occident versus Orient

Western world (occident) vs eastern world (orient) — a cultural and political division often rooted in colonial perspectives - shapes how western countries view and interact with middle eastern societies

Orientalism

Wests Biased exotic view of the east (Edward said) - influences Stereotypes and justifies colonialism

kemalism

Ataturks plan to modernize Turkey, remove religion from politics - Created secular, turkey and inspired nationalist movements

Kingdom of Kurdistan

Short lived Kurdish state in the 1920s - Crushed by British and Iraqi forces -early Kurdish attempt at independence; Kurdish issues remain unresolved

Sharif Huseyn

Leader of the Arab revolt (1916-18) Against the Ottomans — Promised independence by the British but later betrayed by Sykes-Picot and mandates

Woodrow Wilson & 14 points

U.S presidents post WWI plan; promoted self rule but not equality for all - Raise hopes for independence, but was unevenly applied in the Middle East

Mandate system

Britain/France control of former Ottoman lands “until ready” for independence -delayed Middle Eastern, independence, and caused resentment

Egypt: Conditional independence

British let Egypt be “independent” in 1922 but kept control of key areas -Egypt’s nationalist movements grew to oppose British influence

Wafd Party

Egyptian nationalist party pushing for full independence from Britain in the early 20th century -Led to major anti-colonial efforts in Egypt

Muslim brotherhood

Islamist movement founded in Egypt (1928) by Hassan Al-Banna; combined political activism, social services, and religious reform - influential in regional politics and Islamist movements

Abdul Al-Aziz ibn al-saud

Founder of modern Saudi Arabia (1932) — United the regions of Hijaz and Nejd under Wahhabi Islam

Hijaz

Western Arabia region, home to Mecca and Medina — historically contested between Ottomans, sharif huseyn and Ibn saud - Religious and political centre of the Muslim world

Nejd

Central Arabian region; Ibn sauds original home base - Basis for Saudi Arabia’s expansion

Reza Khan

military officer who took over Persia in 1921, crowned himself Reza Shah (1925), modernized Iran - started Iran’s move toward a centralized state and secularism

Anglo Persian oil company

British control company exploiting Iran’s oil- Symbol of foreign economic control - Source of wealth and conflict in Iran

Nationalism

Political movement advocating self role, and national identity- in the Middle East often anti imperialist -Fueled independence movements and regional conflicts

Greater Syria

Concept of uniting, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine into one Arab state - influenced Arab nationalist goals and regional disputes

Arab nationalism

Movement promoting unity and independence of Arab people based on shared language, culture, and history - Major force shaping mid 20th century Middle East politics

Dreyfus affair

1894 French scandal where Jewish officer was falsely accused of treason - Highlighting European antisemitism and inspired Zionism

Zionism

Jewish nationalist movement aiming to establish a homeland in Palestine - Lead Jewish immigration and eventual creation of Israel

Theodor Herzl

Founder of political Zionism; argued for a Jewish state as a refuge from anti semitism - organized the Zionist movement

Aliyot

Waves of Jewish immigration to Palestine -Changed demographics and increased tensions with Palestine

Moshav & kibbutz

types of Jewish agriculture communities in Palestine - Built the social and economic base of early Israel

David Ben-Gurion

First Prime Minister of Israel and Zionist leader - Lead Israel’s independence in early state building

Chaim Weizmann

Zionist leader and first president of Israel; Lobbied for the balfour declaration - Influential and gaining international support for Israel

Balfour declaration

1917 British statement supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine without harming existing non-Jewish communities - Key moment in Zionist success controversial for Palestinians

Yusuf Diya al-Khalidi

Palestinian politician, who warned Britain That zionist settlement would cause conflict - He was an early Palestinian voice opposing Jewish immigration

Arab revolt

1936 to 1939 Palestinian uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration - showed Palestinian resistance and deepened conflict

Haganah

Main Jewish paramilitary group In Mandatory Palestine; Later became Israel defence forces (IDF) -Defended Jewish communities and fought in the 1948 war

Irgun

Jewish militant group using more extreme tactics against British and Arabs; Led by future PM menachem begin -helped to push British out, but also increased Violence

British white paper

1939 British policy limiting Jewish immigration to Palestine; Upsetting Zionists during Holocaust - increased tensions

UN partition plan

1947 UN Proposal to divide Palestine into Jewish and Arab states; Accepted by Jews, rejected by Arabs - led to war and Israel’s creation

Israeli independence

Declaration of state of Israel on May 14, 1948 -Triggered war and Palestinian displacement

War of 1948

Arab-Israeli war following Israel’s declaration; Israel won and expanded territory Palestinians faced nakba

Nakba

“Catastrophe” - term used by Palestinians for the 1948 mass displacement (700,000) - Foundation of Palestinian refugee crisis

Israel: law of return

1950 law granting any Jew the right to immigrate and gain citizenship - Encouraged Jewish immigration shaping Israel’s population

June or six day war

Israel defeated Egypt, Syria, Jordan; occupied West Bank, gaza, Sinai and golan heights - changed borders and intensified conflict over occupied lands

Yeshayhu Leibowitz

Israeli philosopher critical of occupation after 1967; warned it would corrupt Israeli society -

Raised ethical questions about Israel’s Control of territories

UN resolution 242

Called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in exchange for peace; vague wording led to disputes

October or Yom Kippur war 1973

Egypt and Syria attacked Israel; ended with Israeli Victori but led to peace talks but also ongoing tensions

Palestinian liberation organization (PLO)

Umbrella group representing Palestinians; Initially committed to armed struggle against Israel - Main Palestinian voice for decades involved in resistance and peace talks

Yasser Arafat

PLO (Palestinian liberation organization) leader (1969-2004) - Symbol of Palestinian nationalism and peace efforts

Camp David accords

1978 Egypt-Israel, peace agreement brokered by the US; Egypt recognized Israel, Israel returned Sinai - First Arab Israeli peace treaty: Egypt expelled from Arab league

Palestinian intifada(s)

mass Palestinian uprisings (1987-1993 & 2000 -2005) Against the Israeli occupation- Marked major posting in resistance phases

Oslo accords

1993 agreement between Israel and Palestinian liberation organization ; Mutual recognition and limited Palestinian self rule - Raised hopes for peace, but failed to resolve core issues

yitzhak Rabin

Israeli PM who signed Oslo; Assassinated by Israeli extremist in 1995 - His assassination showed deep divisions over peace process

Benjamin Netanyahu

Israel, Prime Minister (Multiple terms) - Opposed aspects of Oslo, expanded settlements - opposed peace efforts

Separation wall

Israeli barrier in Westbank, Built after second intifada; Israel says for security, but Palestinians say it’s a land grab

Hamas

Palestinian islamist group governing Gaza since 2007; Considered terrorist by Israel, United States and Europe

Kahanists

Far right Jewish nationalist movement advocating expulsion of arabs from Israel/palestine - An example of extremist views increasing tensions

Canada Park

Israeli Park built on land from destroyed Palestinian villages after 1967 war - symbolize contested history and displacement

Lester Pearson

Canadian Prime Minister, who helped create UN peacekeeping (Nobel prize winner)

United Nations relief works agency (UNRWA)

UN agency, giving aid, schools and health services to Palestinian refugees - Key support for refugees but controversial in politics

United Nations emergency force (UNEF)

UN peacekeepers set up after Suez crisis (1956) - helped to maintain temporary peace

Soviet-Afghanistan war (1978-1989)

USSR Invaded to support Afghan communist government: United States and others backed Afghan fighters -Led to Afghan resistance and US involvement

Great Game

1800s rivalry between British and Russia over control of Central Asia including Afghanistan - Influenced Afghan history and geopolitics

Anglo-Afghan wars

three 1800s-early 1900s wars between Britain and Afghanistan -Shaped Afghan independence and resistance

Amanullah Khan

Afghan king (1919-1929) who won independence from Britain -Modernized Afghanistan, but faced opposition

Nur Mohammed Taraki

Afghan communist leader after 1978 coup (sudden violent takeover of a government by a small group - military or political leaders) - Started communist rule leading to Soviet invasion

Saur revolution

Communist takeover in Afghanistan - lead to decades of conflict

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

USSR sent troops in 1979; led to decade long war with Afghan resistance

what is USSR

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics aka Soviet Union- Large communist Country made up of Russia and several other republics in Eastern Europe and Asia Existing from 1922 until 1991

September 11, 2001

Al Qaeda attacks on U.S. lead to “war on terror” launched by the U.S. - including wars in Afghanistan and Iraq -Also led to US invasions in the Middle East

Charlie Wilson and Joanne Herring

US congressman and Houston socialite who lobbied to arm Afghan fighters in the 1980s - Supported Afghan resistance against Soviets

taliban

Islamic group that ruled Afghanistan (1986 to 2001) And later fought US - Back government - harsh rulers and hosts for Al Qaeda

Canadian combat mission to Afghanistan

Canada’s military role in Afghanistan (2001 to 2011) As part of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) efforts against taliban and ISIS

What’s North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Military alliance formed in 1949 between the US Canada and many European countries - main idea: If one member is attacked, the other, which will help an attack on one is an attack on all)

Autocracy

System where one person has all the power (Like a king or a dictator) - Many Middle Eastern countries were ruled by Autocraft, which often limited democracy and caused unrest

Decolonization

When colonies became independent countries after World War II -it changed the political map of the Middle East and created new states, but often left conflicts unresolved

Oil

Natural resource that powers, economies, and politics - Control of oil wealth made Middle Eastern countries important globally and sparked conflicts

Cold War

Global rivalry between the US and the USSR from 1947 to 1991 - Both superpowers competed for influence in the Middle East supporting different governments and groups

Winston Churchill

British Prime Minister during World War II and early Cold War - He influenced post World War II, Middle Eastern borders, and supported British control of key areas

Joseph Stalin

Soviet leader during World War II and early Cold War - He supported communist groups in the Middle East to expand Soviet influence

Harry Truman

US president who supported the creation of Israel in 1948 - His support helped establish Israel has a state affecting regional politics

Containment

US strategy to stop communism from spreading — Led the US to intervene, politically and militarily in middle eastern countries

Nikita Khrushchev

Soviet leader after Stalin - Continued to Cold War policies, including support from Middle Eastern allies

“Leapfrogging”

Skipping steps to modernize quickly - some Middle Eastern countries tried this to catch up economically politically

Free officers

Military group that over through Egypt’s King in 1952 - They ended monarchy and started a republic under Nasser , Shifting Egypt toward Arab nationalism

King Faysal

Saudi king Who modernized his country - Balanced traditional Saudi culture with some modernization and oil wealth growth

Wahhabism

Strict Islamic movement influencing Saudi Arabia‘s laws - Shapes Saudi Arabias Society and it’s political religious identity

Mohammed mosadeq

Iranian Prime Minister, who nationalized oil in 1951 - His actions angered Britain in the US leading to a CIA backed coup in 1953

Iran coup

1953 overthrow of mosadeq Supported by the CIA -restored the shahs power And increased western Control over Iranian oil

Mohammed Reza Shah pahlevi

Last shah of Iran before 1979 Revolution - His role was supported by the west, but led to unrest and eventual revolution

SAVAK (Iran)

Shahs Secret Police known for repressing opposition - Helped to maintain shahs Control but increased resentment against his regime

Ayatollah Khomeini

Leader of the 1979 Iranian revolution - Created the Islamic Republic, changing Iran’s government and regional role

Black Friday

1978 violent crack down on protesters in Iran - marked a turning point that intensified the revolution against the shah

Iranian revolution

1979 overthrow of the shah And establishment of Islamic republic - Changed Iran from a monarchy to a theocracy Affecting Middle East politics

Jimmy Carter

US president during late 1970s - Helped broker the camp David accords between Egypt and Israel; Dealt with Iran hostage crisis

Great mosque siege

1979 armed takeover of Mecca mosque by extremists - Shook Saudi Arabia and led to stricter religious controls

Iran- Iraq war

1980 to 1988 conflict between Iran and Iraq - Long deadly war that weekend, both countries and affected regional politics

gamal abd Al-nasser

Egyptian leader promoting Arab nationalism and socialism - Nationalized the Suez Canal and United Egypt and Syria briefly in the united Arab Republic

Suez crisis

1956 conflict after Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal - Britain, France and Israel attacked Egypt - ended with increased US and Soviet influence

United Arab Republic

Union of Egypt and Syria (1958 to 1961) - Early attempt at Arab unity that ultimately failed

Anwar Sadat

Egyptian president after nasser - Made peace with Israel through camp David accords -Assassinated in 1981

husni Mubarak

Egyptian leader after Sadat Until 2011 - Ruled Egypt for 30 years before being overthrown during the Arab spring

Arabian, American oil company (ARAMCO)

Huge oil company owned by Saudi Arabia and the US - Controlled much of Saudi oil, production, shaping global oil, markets, and Saudi-US relations

Ba’ath party

Arab nationalist political party in Syria and Iraq - Ruled both countries for decades, promoting Arab unity and socialism

Hafez al-Asad

Long time, Syrian president and Ba’ath leader - Held power with an iron fist shaped syrias role in the Middle East conflicts