sociology final review

socioeconomic status

an individuals position in a stratified social order

stratification

the hierarchical organization of society into differing groups

stratification =

inequality, systematic unequal distribution of people across social categories

achieved traits

acquired through the process of living life

ascribed traits

set at birth

ascriptive inequality

refers to the degree to which patterns of inequality are connected to traits that are present at birth, such as race, gender, ethnicity, parents' background, or nationality

the upper class

a term for the economic elite (power, wealth, prestige)

the middle class

a social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers

degree of crystallization

how likely it is that somebody at the top (or bottom) of one inequality category will also appear at the top (or bottom) of other inequality categories

increasing technology =

increasing levels of stratification

2 mechanisms of stratification

• allocation of people into social categories

• institutionalization of practices that allocate resources unequally

exploitation

when people of one social group acquire a resource made by another social group and prevents them from realizing the full value of their effort

opportunity hoarding

powerful groups control scarce resources & limit less powerful groups access via fees, rents, prohibitions

emulation

copying of social distinction and social relationships

adaption

when social relationships and behavior that are micro levels become built towards ranked positions

degree of inequality

the level of concentration of a specific asset within the larger population

rigidity

the degree to which movement is possible within a stratification system

social inequality

a condition in which in differences in wealth, power, prestige, and status based on nonnatural conventions exist

rousseau's 2 forms of inequality

physical or social

rousseau

• social inequality stems from private property

• creates unequal access to resources

• ultimately leads to resentment in conflict

non-exploitative economic oppression

situations where one group's privilege or advantage depends on the exclusion or disadvantage of another group

inverse interdependence principle

the material welfare of one group of people causally depends upon the material deprivations of another

exploitation occurs when

exclusion of one group generates a material advantage to another group

malthus

believed that inequality played a beneficial, or necessary, role in avoiding the problem of massive overpopulation and starvation

dialectic

2 directional relationship (both sides depend on each other)

dialectic materialism

put group struggles for control of economic resources at the center of social change

structural functionalism

a conceptual framework positing that each element of society serves a particular function to keep the entire system in equilibrium

conflict theory

the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general

equality of opportunity

the idea that each person is guaranteed the same chance to succeed in life

equality of equality of condition (ontological)

the idea that everyone should have an equal starting point

equality of outcome

the idea that each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness of the "game"

estate system

politically based system characterized by limited social mobility

caste system

a religion-based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility

class system

an economically based system of stratification with somewhat loose social mobility based on roles in the production process rather than individual characteristics

weber

status groups are communities united by either a positive or negative social estimation of their honor

elite-mass dichotomy system

a system of stratification that has a governing elite, a few leaders who broadly hold power in society

3 major institutionalizing forces in the u.s

• economic institutions

• political order

• military order

social mobility

a change in position within the social hierarchy

sex

the perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish males from females

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

sexuality

desire, sexual preference, and sexual identity and behavior

gender ideology

set of ideas about masculinity and femininity, relationships, etc.

dominant gender ideology

men are naturally superior to women (especially in activities with strength, physical skills, and emotional control)

essentialist

arguments explaining social phenomena in terms of natural, biological, or evolutionary inevitabilities

androgynous

neither feminine or masculine

transgender

describes people whose gender does not correspond to their birth sex

cisgender

term used when gender identity and/or expression aligns with the sex assigned at birth

hegemonic masculinity

the condition in which men are dominant and privileged (this dominance and privilege is invisible)

feminism

the belief that women should possess the same political and economic rights as men (seeks to have people understand that gender is an organizing principle of life)

patriarchy

a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity

functionalism

in order to maintain social equilibrium men and women are assigned different tasks (men have instrumental roles while women have expressive role (sex role theory))

"cool pose"

a hyper masculine performance of gender meant to convey toughness, sexual power, confidence, and control

sexism

prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex

hostile sexism

support of the sexual domination and exploitation of women

benevolent sexism

women are caring and sensitive but also naive and weak

sexual harrassment

the abuse of one's position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands on someone

emotional labor

a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work

glass ceiling

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder

glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs

sex role theory (parsons)

men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers, respectively, because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers

intersectionality

the idea that it is critical to understand the interplay between social identities such as race, class, gender, ability status, and sexual orientation, even though many social systems and institutions try to treat each category on its own

matrix of domination

intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination and, by extension, a unique position within that space based on someone's intersectional identity along the multiple dimensions of gender, age, race, class, sexuality, location, and so on

sexual orientation

• heterosexual

• homosexual

• bisexual

a race

a group who shares a set of characteristics (typically physical) and common bloodline

race is…

a social construct that changes over time and across different contexts

racism

belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race

3 key beliefs of racism

• humans are divided into distinct bloodlines and/or physical types

• these bloodlines or physical traits are linked to distinct cultures, behaviors, personalities, and intellectual abilities

• certain groups are superior to others

ethnicity

identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions

symbolic ethnicity

a nationality; the sense of identifying with a past or future nationality

ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group

ontological equality

the philosophical and religious notion that all people are created equal

social darwinism

the application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion

one drop rule

the belief that "one drop" of black blood makes a person black, a concept that evolved from U.S. laws forbidding miscegenation

critical race theory

a legal theory that asserts that race is not natural but rather is socially constructed in order to oppress nonwhites and that racism is inherent in U.S. legal institutions

racialization

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

2000 census

first time people were allowed to choose more than one race

ethnicity is…

voluntary, self-defined, non hierarchical, fluid

predjudice

thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group that lead to preconceived notions and judgements

discrimination

harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category, without regard to their individual merit

institutional racism

institutions and social dynamics that may seem race-neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups

color blind racism

the use of race-neutral principles to perpetuate a racially unequal status quo

abstract liberalism

using liberal ideas such as equality of opportunity or freedom of choice to explain or justify racial inequality

naturalization

explain racial matters as a consequence of a natural phenomenon

cultural racism

the cultural images and messages that affirm the assumed superiority of whites and the assumed inferiority of people of color

minimization of racism

suggests discrimination is no longer a central factor affecting minorities' life chances

straight-line assimilation

park's universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate

primordialism

geertz's term to explain the strength of ethnic ties because they are fixed in deeply felt or primordial ties to one's homeland culture

pluralism

the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government; the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation

segregation

separation of people based on racial, ethnic, or other differences

genocide

the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation

endogamy

the practice of marrying within one's own group

exogamy

marriage to someone outside one's social group

monogamy

the practice of having only one sexual partner or spouse at a time

polygamy

the practice of having 2+ sexual partner or spouse at a time

polyandry

multiple husbands

polygyny

multiple wives

nuclear family

a couple and their dependent children, regarded as a basic social unit

extended family

kin networks that extend outside or beyond the nuclear family

cohabitation

living together without being married or religious sanctioning

kinship networks

strings of relationships between people related by blood and co-residence (marriage)