BIOL 1010 | Chapter 35 Definitions

behaviour

An action carried out by muscles or glands under the control of the nervous system in response to an environmental cue; collectively, it represents an animal’s responses to internal and external stimuli, including actions like movement, communication, or learning.

behavioural ecology

The study of behavior in an evolutionary context, examining how behaviours develop, evolve, and contribute to an animal’s survival and reproductive success.

proximate questions

Questions that focus on the immediate mechanisms underlying a behaviour—how it occurs, what stimuli trigger it, and what genetic, physiological, or anatomical processes are involved.

stimuli

Environmental cues that elicit a behavioural response from an organism, such as light, sound, temperature, or the presence of another organism.

proximate causes

The mechanistic explanations for a behavior, describing the internal or external triggers and biological mechanisms responsible for how a behavior occurs.

ultimate questions

Questions that address why a behavior occurs by exploring its evolutionary significance and adaptive value shaped by natural selection.

ultimate causes

The evolutionary explanations for a behavior, showing how it increases an organism’s fitness, survival, or reproductive success.

innate behaviours

Behaviours that are genetically programmed and not learned, performed in nearly identical ways by all members of a species. They are under strong genetic control but often require environmental stimuli to be triggered and can improve slightly with experience.

fixed action patterns (FAPs)

Sequences of innate behaviours triggered by a specific stimulus, carried out to completion once initiated, even if environmental conditions change mid-sequence. They are stereotyped, automatic, and unalterable within an individual.

master gene

A gene that controls the expression of many other genes, coordinating complex behaviours or developmental processes. For example, the fruitless (fru) gene in fruit flies acts as a master gene by activating a suite of genes responsible for male courtship behavior.

learning

The modification of behavior based on specific experiences, allowing animals to adjust their responses to environmental changes and improve survival through behavioural flexibility.

habituation

A simple form of learning in which an animal decreases or stops responding to a repeated stimulus that carries no significant information, conserving energy and attention for more important stimuli.

imprinting

A form of learning that occurs during a specific, limited time period in an animal’s life and is generally irreversible. It involves forming a strong association with another individual or environmental cue, often combining both innate and learned components.

sensitive period

The critical window of time in early development during which imprinting or specific learning can occur. Outside this period, the behavior cannot be learned or modified effectively.

kinesis

A random, undirected movement in response to a stimulus, where an animal changes its rate of movement or turning frequency but not in a specific direction. It helps the animal increase its chances of encountering favorable conditions by moving more in response to stimuli like light, moisture, or temperature.

taxis

A directed movement toward (positive taxis) or away from (negative taxis) a specific stimulus. It is an oriented behavioural response, enabling animals to move deliberately toward beneficial or away from harmful environmental cues.

spatial learning

A form of learning in which animals use landmarks and spatial cues to form mental maps of their environment, allowing them to remember the locations of important resources such as food, nests, mates, and hazards.

migration

The regular, seasonal back-and-forth movement of animals between two geographic areas, often between breeding and feeding grounds. Migration allows species to exploit seasonal resources, avoid harsh

spyhopping

A behavior observed in some marine mammals, such as gray whales, in which the animal raises its head vertically out of the water to observe landmarks or environmental cues above the surface, likely aiding in navigation during migration.

associative learning

The ability of an animal to associate one environmental feature with another, allowing it to predict outcomes based on past experiences. This type of learning links a stimulus (something the animal perceives) with a specific consequence (reward or punishment).

trial and error learning

A form of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate its own behavior with a specific consequence. Behaviours that lead to rewards are repeated, while those that cause harm or discomfort are avoided.

social learning

Learning that occurs by observing and imitating the behavior of others, rather than through direct experience or trial and error. It allows animals to acquire important behaviours more efficiently by watching and listening to members of their group.

cognition

The mental process carried out by an animal’s nervous system to perceive, store, integrate, and use information gathered by the senses. Cognition allows animals to interpret their environment, make decisions, and adapt behavior based on experience.

problem solving

The process of applying past experiences or learned behaviours to overcome new or unfamiliar challenges. Problem-solving demonstrates higher-level cognitive processing and is often observed in animals capable of flexible thinking and innovation.

foraging

Food-obtaining behavior that includes not only eating, but also the searching for, recognizing, and capturing of food. Foraging strategies evolve to maximize energy gain while minimizing risk and effort.

search image

A mental picture that helps an animal identify a particular type of food item efficiently. Animals develop and adjust search images depending on which food sources are most available.

cost-benefit analysis

A method behavioral ecologists use to evaluate the trade-offs in foraging behavior by comparing the energy and risk costs with the nutritional and survival benefits gained from different food choices.

optimal foraging model

A model predicting that an animal’s feeding behavior will maximize energy intake while minimizing energy expenditure and predation risk. It helps explain how animals balance efficiency and safety when selecting food.

predation

The act of one organism hunting, capturing, and consuming another. Predation represents a major risk during foraging and strongly influences feeding behavior and group dynamics.

signal

A stimulus transmitted by one animal to another, used to convey information that can influence the behavior of the receiver.

communication

The sending, receiving, and responding to signals between animals; it is a crucial part of interactions and coordination within and between species.

nocturnal

Animals that are active at night; they rely on non-visual signals like scent and sound for communication.

diurnal

Animals that are active during the day; they primarily use visual and auditory signals that are effective in daylight.

promiscuous

A mating system in which no strong pair-bonds or lasting relationships form between males and females. Individuals mate with multiple partners, and both sexes may have little or no parental involvement.

monogamous

A mating system in which one male and one female form a bond, often sharing parental duties to raise offspring. Monogamy is common in species where young require extensive care and feeding.

polygamous

A mating system in which one individual mates with multiple partners of the opposite sex. Usually, one male mates with many females, but sometimes one female mates with several males.

endocrine system

A network of glands and organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior in vertebrates.

social behaviour

Any interaction between two or more animals, usually of the same species, that can affect survival, reproduction, or resource acquisition.

territory

A fixed area defended by one or more individuals of a species, typically used for feeding, mating, or rearing young, from which others of the same species are usually excluded.

agonistic behaviour

Any behavior associated with conflicts over limited resources, including threats, ritualized displays, and combat, used to determine which individual gains access to food, mates, or territory.

alpha

The highest-ranking individual in a social group or dominance hierarchy, with priority access to resources and mates.

beta

the second-ranking individual in a hierarchy, subordinate to the alpha but dominant over lower-ranking group members.

omega

The lowest-ranking individual in a hierarchy, often subordinate to all others and having the least access to resources.

dominance hierarchy

A ranked social system in which individuals are organized based on agonistic interactions, establishing relative status and reducing conflict within the group.

altruism

Behaviour that reduces an individual’s own fitness while increasing the fitness of other individuals in the population.

inclusive fitness

An individual’s total genetic success, including its own reproduction plus the reproduction of relatives who share common genes.

kin selection

Natural selection that favours altruistic behaviours toward close relatives, because helping relatives reproduce indirectly propagates shared genes.

grooming

The act of picking through another animal’s fur to remove debris or parasites, which also strengthens social bonds and reduces tension within a group.