Psychology Study Packet (Modules 1–10) - Vocabulary Flashcards

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key psychology terms from Modules 1–10.

Empirical approach

An evidence-based method that relies on direct observation and experimentation to gather data. This approach is fundamental to scientific inquiry, meaning findings are based on what can be actively seen and tested.

Critical thinking

The mental process of objectively analyzing and evaluating information to form a judgment. It involves questioning assumptions, evaluating evidence, and considering different perspectives rather than just accepting information.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology focused solely on observable behavior and how it is learned. This approach, pioneered by Watson and Skinner, disregards internal mental states and instead looks at how environmental interactions shape actions.

Humanistic psychology

A psychological perspective that emphasizes human potential, free will, and the importance of self-actualization. Key figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused on personal growth, self-worth, and the inherent goodness in individuals.

Cognitive psychology

The scientific study of mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving. This field investigates how people acquire, process, and store information in their minds.

Cognitive neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field that links brain activity and structure with mental processes. It uses brain imaging techniques to understand the neural basis of how we think, remember, and perceive.

Psychology

The scientific study of both observable behavior (anything an organism does) and internal mental processes (our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions). It aims to understand why we think, feel, and act the way we do.

Nature–nurture issue

The long-standing debate about whether our traits and behaviors are influenced more by genetic inheritance (nature) or by environmental factors and experiences (nurture). Modern psychology often views them as interacting.

Natural selection

The process by which individuals with traits that help them survive and reproduce in a specific environment tend to pass those advantageous traits to their offspring. This mechanism drives evolutionary change over generations.

Evolutionary psychology

A branch of psychology that examines how behaviors and mental processes may have evolved over time through natural selection. It suggests that many of our psychological traits have roots in ancestral challenges.

Behavior genetics

A field that studies how both genetic inheritance and environmental influences interact to affect behavior and psychological traits. Research in this area often uses twin and adoption studies to explore these contributions.

Positive psychology

A branch of psychology focused on understanding and promoting human flourishing and well-being. Instead of focusing on problems, it studies positive emotions, character strengths, and optimal functioning.

Counseling psychology

A specialty in psychology that helps individuals cope with life challenges, adjust to change, and improve their personal and interpersonal functioning. Counseling psychologists often assist with common life stressors rather than severe mental illness.

Clinical psychology

A specialty that focuses on assessing and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Clinical psychologists use various therapeutic approaches, often involving psychotherapy, to help individuals with mental health conditions.

Psychiatry

A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses. Psychiatrists are medical doctors (MDs) who can prescribe medication, unlike most other mental health professionals, in addition to providing therapy.

Community psychology

A field that studies how individuals interact with their communities and society to promote well-being. It focuses on preventing problems and creating supportive social environments through research and community-based interventions.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or known the outcome all along. This 'I knew it all along' effect makes past events seem more predictable than they actually were.

Theory

In science, an organized system of ideas that explains a broad range of observations and predicts future behaviors or events. A good theory provides a framework for understanding phenomena and guides further research.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction, usually derived from a theory, that states a relationship between variables. It's an educated guess that can be empirically tested through research.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants or settings, to see if the original findings hold true. Replication is essential for confirming results and increasing their reliability.

Case study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual, group, or unique situation. While providing rich information, the findings from a case study may not always be generalized to a larger population.

Naturalistic observation

A research method that involves observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without manipulation or intervention. This technique aims to describe behavior as it naturally occurs, free from artificial laboratory settings.

Random sample

A group of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This ensures the sample is representative and findings can be generalized.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables change together. It indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, but it does not imply that one causes the other.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical index, ranging from -1 to +1, that indicates the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. A value near 0 indicates a weak relationship, while values near -1 or +1 indicate strong relationships.

Variable

Any measurable characteristic, attribute, or event that can vary or change. In psychology research, variables are manipulated (independent) or measured (dependent) to investigate their relationships.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation used to show the relationship between two quantitative variables. Each point on the plot represents the values of the two variables for a single data point, allowing for visual assessment of correlation.

Regression toward mean

A statistical phenomenon where extreme scores or values, whether unusually high or low, tend to move closer to the average (mean) over time or with repeated measurements. This often happens due to random variation.

Experiment

A research method where researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, while controlling other factors. This allows for determining cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental group

In an experiment, this is the group that receives the treatment or the specific condition being studied (the independent variable). Their results are compared to a control group to determine the treatment's effect.

Control group

In an experiment, this is the group that does not receive the treatment or is exposed to a neutral condition. It serves as a baseline for comparison, helping to isolate the effects of the experimental manipulation.

Independent variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated or deliberately changed by the researcher in an experiment. It is the presumed cause, and its effect is measured on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

The factor that is measured or observed in an experiment. It is the outcome that is expected to change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Statistics

A branch of mathematics that uses tools for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. In psychology, statistics are essential for summarizing research findings and making inferences about populations.

Mode

A measure of central tendency that represents the most frequently occurring score(s) in a data set. It is particularly useful for categorical data or when identifying the most common response.

Mean

A measure of central tendency, calculated as the arithmetic average of all the scores in a distribution. It is found by summing all values and dividing by the total number of values.

Median

A measure of central tendency that represents the middle score in a distribution when all scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest. If there's an even number of scores, it's the average of the two middle scores.

Range

A measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. It provides a simple indication of how spread out the data points are.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much individual scores in a distribution deviate from the mean. A low standard deviation means scores are clustered close to the average, while a high standard deviation means they are more spread out.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped graphic representation that describes the distribution of many types of data. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all equal and located at the center.

Inferential statistics

Statistical methods that allow researchers to make generalizations and draw conclusions about a larger population based on data collected from a sample. These methods help determine the probability that results are not due to chance.

Statistical significance

A statement about how likely it is that an obtained research result occurred by chance. In psychology, a p-value less than .05 (p < .05) typically indicates that the result is statistically significant, meaning it's unlikely to be due to random variation.

Biological psychology

A branch of psychology that explores the intricate links between biological processes (like genetics, brain activity, and hormones) and psychological processes, including our behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Also known as biopsychology or behavioral neuroscience.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's remarkable ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself throughout life. This includes forming new neural connections, consolidating existing ones, or even generating new neurons, in response to learning, experience, or injury.

Neuron

The fundamental building block of the nervous system; an individual nerve cell that specializes in transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body. Neurons form complex networks for communication.

Cell body

Also known as the soma, this is the main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles essential for the cell's life and function. It integrates incoming signals from other neurons.

Axon

A long, slender projection extending from the neuron's cell body. Its primary function is to transmit electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin sheath

A fatty, insulating layer that surrounds and protects the axons of many neurons. It greatly increases the speed at which electrical impulses travel along the axon, similar to insulation on an electrical wire.

Glial cells

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide essential support, protection, and nourishment for neurons. They play critical roles in forming the myelin sheath, maintaining brain environment, and removing waste.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation (an electrical charge) required for a neuron to fire an action potential. If the combined input reaches this level, the neuron will generate an impulse; otherwise, it will not.

All-or-none response

The principle stating that a neuron's action potential either fires completely at full strength or does not fire at all. There is no partial firing; once the threshold is met, the impulse is generated fully.

Synapse

The tiny gap or junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron. It's the point where chemical signals (neurotransmitters) are transmitted from one neuron to the next.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that are released from the axon terminal of a sending neuron, cross the tiny synaptic gap, and bind to receptor sites on a receiving neuron. They excite or inhibit the receiving neuron, influencing its likelihood of firing.

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters produced by the brain. They act as natural painkillers, reducing pain perception and elevating mood, often released during exercise, excitement, or stress.

Agonist

A chemical substance (often a drug) that mimics or enhances the action of a natural neurotransmitter. It binds to the neurotransmitter's receptor sites and produces a similar biological response, thereby increasing the effect.

Antagonist

A chemical substance (often a drug) that blocks or impedes the normal action of a neurotransmitter. It does this by occupying the receptor sites, thereby preventing the natural neurotransmitter from binding and exerting its effect.

Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, comprised of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It controls and coordinates all bodily activities, processes sensory information, and enables thought and emotion.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord, the CNS is the body's main control center. It processes incoming sensory information, integrates it, and sends out commands for motor actions, thoughts, and emotions.

Nerves

Bundles of axons from many different neurons that are grouped together to carry signals. They act as communication cables, transmitting electrical and chemical impulses between the central nervous system and other parts of the body.

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors (e.g., in the skin, eyes, ears) throughout the body to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) for processing.

Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information and commands from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. They initiate movement and enable bodily responses.

Interneurons

Neurons located entirely within the central nervous system that act as intermediaries. They process information internally, communicating between sensory inputs and motor outputs, and are crucial for complex thought.

Somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's voluntary skeletal muscle movements. It transmits sensory information to the CNS and carries motor commands to muscles, allowing conscious control over movement.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary internal bodily functions such as heartbeat, digestion, respiration, and glandular activity. It operates mostly automatically, without conscious awareness.

Sympathetic

A division of the autonomic nervous system that 'arouses' the body, preparing it for action in stressful or threatening situations (the 'fight or flight' response). It increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and redirects blood flow.

Parasympathetic

A division of the autonomic nervous system that 'calms' the body, conserving its energy and returning it to a resting state (the 'rest and digest' response). It lowers heart rate, constricts pupils, and stimulates digestion.

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a sensory stimulus, typically mediated by a simple neural pathway in the spinal cord without requiring conscious thought or brain involvement for the initial reaction.

Endocrine system

The body's slower chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. It regulates various long-term bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and overall mood.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target organs or tissues. They regulate a wide range of physiological and psychological processes, affecting mood, growth, metabolism, and sexual development.

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands located just above the kidneys. They secrete hormones like adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress, influencing heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolism.

Pituitary gland

Often called the 'master gland,' it is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. It secretes hormones that influence growth and stimulate other endocrine glands to release their own hormones, thereby regulating much of the endocrine system.

EEG

Electroencephalogram. A neuroimaging technique that records and measures the electrical activity (brain waves) generated by millions of neurons in the brain, typically using electrodes placed on the scalp. It is useful for studying sleep stages, seizures, and conscious states.

MEG

Magnetoencephalography. A neuroimaging technique that records the faint magnetic fields produced by electrical currents within the brain. It provides excellent temporal resolution, allowing researchers to precisely track brain activity in milliseconds.

PET

Positron Emission Tomography. A neuroimaging technique that shows brain activity by tracking the brain's consumption of a temporarily radioactive glucose-like substance. Areas with higher activity use more glucose, making them 'light up' on the scan.

MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging. A neuroimaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft tissues, including the brain's anatomical structures. It is highly effective for showing structural abnormalities or detailed brain anatomy.

fMRI

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. A neuroimaging technique that measures changes in blood flow to different parts of the brain, which correlates with neural activity. It provides both structural information (like MRI) and functional information (indicating which brain areas are active during tasks).

Hindbrain

The most ancient part of the brain, located at the back of the skull. It includes the brainstem (medulla and pons) and the cerebellum, and is primarily responsible for vital autonomic functions, movement coordination, and balance.

Midbrain

A small central part of the brainstem, located between the hindbrain and forebrain. It plays roles in relaying sensory and motor information, controlling eye movements, and is involved in aspects of hearing and vision.

Forebrain

The largest and most complex part of the brain, encompassing the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system. It is responsible for higher-level functions like complex thought, emotion, memory, and voluntary movement.

Brainstem

The oldest and innermost region of the brain, extending from the spinal cord. It includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain, and is crucial for automatic survival functions such as regulating breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem, responsible for controlling vital involuntary functions essential for survival. These include regulating heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and reflex actions like vomiting and swallowing.

Thalamus

Often referred to as the brain's sensory control center or 'relay station,' located at the top of the brainstem. It receives all sensory input (with the exception of smell) and funnels it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for further processing.

Reticular formation

A nerve network extending from the spinal cord up through the brainstem and thalamus. It plays a crucial role in controlling arousal and alertness, filtering incoming sensory stimuli and relaying important information to other brain areas.

Cerebellum

Located at the rear of the brainstem, this wrinkled structure is primarily responsible for coordinating voluntary movement, maintaining balance, and plays a role in learning and memory, especially for nonverbal tasks.

Limbic system

A group of interconnected structures (including the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres. It is centrally involved in emotion, motivation, memory formation, and basic drives.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters within the limbic system. They are centrally involved in the processing and memory of emotional reactions, particularly fear and aggression, and play a role in fight-or-flight responses.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that plays a crucial role in the formation of new explicit memories (facts and events) and spatial navigation. Damage to this area often impairs the ability to form new long-term memories.

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body's ultimate control and information processing center, responsible for higher cognitive functions like thought, planning, language, and perception.

Frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They are involved in executive functions such as speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgments, decision-making, and aspects of personality.

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex located at the top of the head and toward the rear. They receive and process sensory input for touch and body position, integrating sensory information from the body's receptors.

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex located at the very back of the head. Their primary function is to process visual information, receiving raw visual input from the eyes and interpreting it.

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears. They are primarily involved in auditory processing (hearing), language comprehension (such as Wernicke's area), and aspects of memory.

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. Specific regions of the motor cortex correspond to specific body parts, allowing for precise control and coordination of movements.

Neurogenesis

The process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem cells in specific regions of the adult brain, such as the hippocampus. This process contributes to neuroplasticity and the brain's capacity for repair and learning.

Corpus callosum

A large, thick band of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. Its primary function is to allow the left and right hemispheres to communicate and share information with each other, integrating their functions.

Split brain

A condition resulting from a surgical procedure (callosotomy) that severs the corpus callosum, isolating the two cerebral hemispheres. This leads to distinct and independent functioning of each hemisphere, revealing their specialized roles.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. It encompasses our perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and sensations, allowing us to integrate information, reflect, and plan future actions.

Hypnosis

A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. It often leads to a state of heightened suggestibility and focused attention.

Selective attention

The ability to focus conscious attention on one particular stimulus, task, or information source, while filtering out or ignoring other distracting stimuli in the environment. This capacity is limited and crucial for effective cognitive processing.