psych/soc terms chapter 4: cognition, consciousness, and language

Paivo’s dual-coding theory

both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information

assimilation

process of classifying new information into existing schemata

schema

organized patterns of behavior and thought

adaptation

made up of assimilation and accommodation processes

accommodation

process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

sensorimotor stage

birth until two years

sensorimotor stage

learning to manipulate the environment

coordinate sensory input with motor actions

primary circular reactions

part of sensorimotor stage

repetitions of movements that originally occurred by chance

usually found to be soothing

Ex: sucking thumb

secondary circular reactions

part of sensorimotor stage

occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body

usually elicits a response from the environment or a parent

Ex: throwing a toy from a high chair

object permanence

what key milestone is typically achieved during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of cognitive development?

preoperational stage

two to seven years old

preoperational stage

characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism

symbolic thinking

ability to pretend, play make believe, and have an imagination

egocentrism

inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

focused on self

conservation

during the preoperational stage, what idea are children typically unable to grasp?

centration

what idea did Piaget attribute the lack of grasping the concept of conservation to?

centration

tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon

concrete operational

7-11 years old

concrete operational

loss of egocentrism

understand law of conservation and can see from others’ perspectives

engage in logical thought

cannot yet think abstractly

formal operational

11+ years old

formal operational

ability to think logically about abstract ideas

reason and problem solve

ability for hypothetical reasoning: can manipulate variable sin a number or different ways

Lev Vygotsky

proposed that children’s internalization of their culture is the driving factor of cognitive development

Ex: interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language

fluid intelligence

solving new or novel problems, using creative methods

crystallized intelligence

related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, often procedural

delirium

rapid fluctuation of cognitive function that is reversible

typically caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes including: electrolyte and pH imbalances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reactions, withdrawal, and pain

functional fixedness

inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

heuristics

simplified principles used to make decisions

“rules of thumb”

representativeness heuristic

categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

availability heuristic

used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind

base rate fallacy

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

confirmation bias

the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

contributes to overconfidence

hindsight bias

the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened

belief perserverance

the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

1. linguistic

2. logical-mathematical

3. musical

4. visual-spatial

5. bodily-kinesthetic

6. interpersonal

7. intrapersonal

8. naturalist

linguistic and logical-mathematical

which intelligence abilities are typically tested on IQ tests?

interpersonal intelligence

the ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of others

intrapersonal

centers around being mindful of one’s own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses

beta waves

high frequency

occur when a person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration

alpha waves

occur when we are awake but relaxing with closed eyes

lower frequency and more synchronized than beta waves

Stage 1 (NREM1)

characterized by theta waves

irregular waveforms

slower frequency, higher voltages

Stage 2 (NREM2)

theta waves accompanied by sleep spindles (higher frequency bursts) and K complexes (singular high-amplitude waves)

Stages 3 and 4 (NREM3/4)

slow-wave sleep

low-frequency, high-voltage delta waves

non-rapid eye movement

associated with cognitive recovery and declarative memory consolidation

REM

aka paradoxical sleep: arousal levels, heart rate, and breathing levels mimic wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed

closely associated with procedural memory consolidation

cortisol

which hormone produced in the adrenal cortex contributes to wakefulness?

activation-synthesis theory

dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry

problem-solving dream theory

dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping

cognitive process dream theory

dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

neurocognitive models of dreaming

correlate the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

depressants

reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense or relaxation or reduced anxiety

types of depressants

alcohol

barbiturates

benzodiazepines

increase GABA activity, causing hyperpolarization

stimulants

increase nervous system activity by increasing the frequency of action potentials

types of stimulants

amphetamines - dopamine release

cocaine - decreases reuptake of neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine)

Ecstasy (MDMA) - acts similar to amphetamines

opiates and opioids

endorphin agonists that cause decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria

types of opiates (natural) and opioids (synthetic)

opiates - morphine and codeine

opioids - oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin

hallucinogens

cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences

exact mechanism unknown, thought to work through various neurotransmitters including serotonin

examples of hallucinogens

LSD

ketamine

psilocybin containing mushrooms

marijuana

active ingredient THC acts on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors

inhibits GABA, increases dopamine activity

falls in categories of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

phonology

sound of language

morphology

structure of words

semantics

association of meaning with a word

syntax

how words are put together to form sentences

pragmatics

dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge

nativist (biological) theory

Noam Chomsky

there is an innate capacity for language

learning (behaviorist) theory

B.F Skinner

language acquisition can be explained by operant conditioning and reinforcement

social interactionist theory

interplay between biological and social processes

language acquisition is driven by a child’s desire to communicate and behave in a social manner

whorfian hypothesis aka linguistic relativity hypothesis

our perception of reality is determined by the content of language

arcuate fasciculus

what connects Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area?