BIOL 1020 FINAL Exam

What are the commonalities of all living organisms?

evolution, order/organization, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, internal regulation, and response to the environment

Evolution

The change in the genetic composition of populations over time, driven by natural selection and adaptation

Order/Organization

The structured arrangement of components in biological systems that enables complex functions and processes essential for life

Reproduction

The biological process by which organisms produce new individuals, ensuring the continuation of their species

Growth and Development

The processes by which organisms increase in size and mature, involving cellular differentiation and specialized functions

Energy Processing

The process by which organisms obtain and utilize energy from their environment to sustain life functions

Internal Regulation

The mechanisms by which organisms maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes, crucial for homeostasis

Response to the environment

The ability of organisms to react and adapt to stimuli in their surroundings, ensuring survival and proper functioning

What is the hierarchy of biological organization?

Biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs and organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules, atoms

What is the classification of biological diversity?

Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species

What are the three domains of life?

Archaea, bacteria, and eukarya

Archaea

Single-celled prokaryotes, differs from bacteria with their cellular structure and biochemistry, can thrive in harsh environment

Bacteria

Single-celled prokaryotes, can be found in a wide range of environments and play important roles in ecosystems

Eukarya

All eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists

Science

A systematic discipline that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe.

Observations

The act of noticing or perceiving something, particularly through the use of one's senses or scientific instruments, and recording or quantifying the information gathered

Hypothesis

A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation

What is the scientific method?

Observations, testable hypothesis, controlled experiment, data collection, and conclusions

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of facts and has been repeatedly tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation

What is the central theory of biology?

Evolution through natural selection

Matter

Any substances that has mass and takes up space by having volume, (can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas), comprised of elements

Element

A substance which cannot be broken down by chemical menas

Compound

Substance of two or more elements in fixed ratio

Chemical symbols

Elements have chemical symbols consisting of 1 or 2 letter symbols (EX. Au = Gold)

What elements are the most important for life?

Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), and sulfer (S)

Why are element’s properties dependent on the structure of its atoms?

The properties of elements depend on atomic structure, specifically the arrangement and number of electrons, protons, and neutrons, which influence chemical behavior and bonding

Chemical bonds

The forces that hold atoms together in molecules and compounds, and include ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds

Strong bonds (intramolecular)

Covalent and Ionic

Weaker bonds (intermolecular)

Hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals interactions

Ionic bonds

Formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in oppositely charged ions that attract each other

Covalent bonds

Formed when two atoms share electrons, resulting in a stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between them

Hydrogen bonds

Formed between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom (life oxygen or nitrogen) and another electronegative atom

Van der Waals bonds

Weak attractions between molecules due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution

Polar covalent bonding

Unequal sharing of electron pairs between atoms with different electronegativities, leading to partial positive and negative charges

What are the four emergent properties of water?

Cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, and universal solvent

Acids and bases

Substances that can donate protons (H+) or accept protons, respectively, affecting the pH of solutions

Vitalism

Living molecules only come from living sources; there is a “living" force” found only within organisms that are alive

Mechanism

Living chemistry is complex, but reproducible; molecules from living organisms can be reproduced from non-living sources

Carbon compounds

Organic molecules primarily made of carbon that are essential for life, forming the basis of biological structures and functions

Hydrocarbons Chains

Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen; they can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy

Isomers

Same molecular formula, different structures, and properties

Structural Isomers

Same structural formula, different arrangement of covalent bonds

Cis-Trans Isomers

Vary across a double bond; the two Xs are on the same side

Trans Isomers

The two Xs are on opposite sides

Enatomers

Mirror-image isomers that cannot be superimposed on each other, leading to different chemical properties.

Functional Groups

The components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

Hydroxyl

Structure: -OH

Functional Properties: Polar and can form hydrogen bonds; increases solubility in water

Carbonyl

Structure: C=O; a ketone if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton, a aldehyde if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton

Functional Properties: Polar, involved in reactions such as aldol condensation and ketone formation

Ketones

Acids that your body makes when it breaks down fat for energy

Aldehydes

Organic compounds containing a carbonyl group (C=O) at the end of the carbon chain, which makes them highly reactive

Carboxyl

Structure: COOH

Functional Properties: Acts as an acid; can donate an H+ because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar; found in cells in the ionixed form with a charge of 1-

Amino

Structure: -NH2

Functional Properties: Acts as a base; can pick up an H+ from the surrounding solution; found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1+

Sulfhydryl

Structure: -SH

Functional Properties: two sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond (cross-linking helps stabilize protein structure)

Phosphate

Structure: PO₄^3-

Functional Properties: contributes negative charge to the molecule of which it is a part; molecules containing phosphate groups have the potential to react with water, releasing energy

Methyl

Structure: CH3

Functional Properties: addition of a methyl group to DNA, or to molecules bound to DNA

Macromolecules

Large molecules and are complex

What are the four molecules of life?

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Polymer

(many parts) A long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks

Monomers

(single parts) The repeating units that serve as building blocks

Dimers

(two parts) Molecules formed by the combination of two monomers

Trimers

(three parts) Molecules formed by the combination of three monomers

Tetramers

(four parts) Molecules formed by the combination of four monomers

Oligomers

(several parts) Molecules formed by the combination of multiple monomers, typically ranging from 2 to 10.

Which three out of four are polymers in the molecules of life?

Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

Enzymes

Speed up chemical reactions such as those that make or break down polymers; made up of protein

Dehydration reaction

Occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

Hydrolysis

The process of breaking down polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule; it is the reverse of a dehydration reaction

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, often serving as a primary energy source and structural components in cells

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that are the building blocks of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules such as glucose and fructose; they are absorbed directly into the bloodstream and provide quick energy.

Disaccharide

Forms when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides; they form a bond called glycosidic linkage

Polysaccharides

The polymers of sugar, have storage and structural roles; structure and function are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages

Starch

A storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers

Cellulose

A polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells

Lipids

A diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that play roles in energy storage, cell structure, and signaling

Fats

Constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids

Fatty Acid

Consist of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

Types of Fatty Acids

Saturated fatty acids: the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds

Unsaturated fatty acids: one or more double bonds

Fats with saturated fatty acids

Have saturated fats, solid at room temperature, includes most animal fats

Fats with unsaturated fatty acids

Have unsaturated fats or oils, liquid at room temperature, in plants and fishes

Hydrogenation

The process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to convert them into saturated fats, often used in the food industry to improve shelf stability

Omega-3 fatty acids

Certain unsaturated fatty acids are not synthesized in the human body and must be obtained from the diet.

These essential fatty acids include the omega-3 fatty acids; these acids are required for normal growth

Phospholipids

A class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes, consisting of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone

Steroids

Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various functional groups attached, involved in a variety of biological processes including hormone regulation

Cholesterol

A type of steroid that is a key component of cell membranes and serves as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones and bile acids

Proteins

Include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions; accounts for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells

What are some protein functions?

Proteins serve as enzymes, structural components, transport molecules, antibodies, and hormones, playing vital roles in cellular processes and functions.

Enzymes

Speed up chemical reactions such as those that make or break down polymers; made up of proteins

Storage proteins

Function to store amino acids and other nutrients for later use, playing a critical role in energy and resource management within organisms

Example: Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby mammals, plants via their seeds, and ovalbumin, the protein in egg whites, is used as an amino acid source

Hormonal proteins

Coordination of an organism’s activities

Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose, regulating blood sugar concentration

Contractile and motor proteins

Function: Movement

Examples: Motor proteins are responosible for the undulations of cilia and flagella; actin and myosin proteins are responsible for the contraction of muscles

Defensive proteins

Function: Protection against disease

Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria

Transport proteins

Function: Transport of substances

Example: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body

Receptor proteins

Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Example: Receptors built into the membrance of nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by other nerve cells

Structural proteins

Function: support

Examples: Keratin is the protein of hair, horns, feathers, and other skin appendages; insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons and webs, respectively

Polypeptides

Unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids

Protein

Biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides

Amino acids

Organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups

Differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups

What are amino acids are linked with?

Peptide bonds

What does a functional protein consist of?

One or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape