POL224 Final Exam Flash Cards

The State

 The institutions, rules, sovereignty, and capacity to enforce authority over a defined area. States have sovereignty (source of power), authority (legitimate power), and institutions (formal and informal rules that shape how actors interact)​.

Regimes

A regime refers to the form of government and the underlying political principles that legitimize it​. It determines who rules, how they gain and use power, and to what end

Regime Types

• Democracies: where power is exercised in the interest of the public

• Oligarchies/ tyrannies: where a few or one rule for self-interest

Canada’s regime

Liberal democratic regime based on principles of constitutionalism, responsible government, and representative democracy

Constitutionalism

The idea that a government’s power should be limited and guided by a constitution

Responsible Government

A democratic principle where the executive branch (the Prime Minister and Cabinet) must have support of the elected legislature (the House of Commons) to stay in power

Representative Democracy

A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on their behalf. The dominant model in modern liberal democracies, including Canada

Democracy

Political system where leaders are chosen in competitive elections featuring multiple parties and candidates

Key Components of Democracy

• political equality (one person, one vote)

• popular sovereignty (rule by the people)

• political freedom (to speak, organize, and dissent)

• majority rule

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote directly on laws and policies, rather than through elected representatives

Confederation

Process and result of Canada’s founding in 1867, where British North American colonies joined together under a federal system through the British North America Act (now the Constitution Act, 1867)

The system became a compromise between central and provincial autonomy, particularly to meet the concerns of Quebec and the Maritimes

Westminister Parliamentary System

Model of government adopted from the UK characterized by

• Bicameral legislature (House of Commons and appointed Senate)

• Ceremonial head of state (the Crown, represented by the Governor General)

• Fusion of executive and legislative powers

• Responsible government

• Executive dominance (centralized leadership in the Prime Minister)

Federalism

A system of shared sovereignty between a central government and regional governments (provinces), with a constitutional division of powers such that neither is subordinate to the other

Federalism in Canada

At Confederation- designed to be a quasi-federal system
Currently- evolved to reflect more balanced power between Ottawa and the provinces (due to judicial decisions and political pressures)

Constitution

Defines the rules and principles governing political institutions, division of powers, and citizens’ rights. Includes both written and unwritten elements

Key Components of a Constitution

• Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982

• Judicial decisionsn

• Organize Canadian Statutes

• British laws/orders in council

• Constitutional conventions (not a single document but a combination of legal texts)

Constitutional Convention

• Unwritten but binding rules that guide constitutional practice

• Not legally enforceable, they structure the behaviour of political actors

  • Examples. the role of the Prime Minister,the formation of Cabinet, and the principle of responsible government
    

Mega-Constitutional Politics

Describes attempts to make large-scale constitutional changes that often relate to identity and national unity (example. Quebec’s status, Indigenous rights, Meech Lake Accord, Charlottetown Accord)

Mega-Constitutional Politics in Canada

These efforts are complex, controversial, and often unsuccessful due to deep division in Canada society

Meech Lake Accord

Negotiated in 1987, sought to bring Quebec into the constitutional fold after it rejected the 1982 Constitution. It recognized Quebec as a “distinct society” and expanded provincial power

Meech Lake Accord- Aftermath

It failed to receive unanimous provincial consent by the 1990 deadline, leading to increased alienation in Quebec and a national unity crisis

Charlottetown Accord

A comprehensive package of constitutional reforms developed through federal-provincial-territorial negotiations, Indigenous leaders, and citizen input

Charlottetown Accord Provisions

• Recognize Quebec as a distinct society

• Enshrine Indigenous self-government

• Reform the Senate into an elected body

• Decentralize certain powers to provinces

• Introduce a Canada Clause to affirm shared Canadian values

Charlottetown vs. Meech Lake

Unlike Meech lake, Charlottetown was subjected to a national referendum where it was rejected by 54.3% of Canadians. The defeat ended the era of “mega-constitutional politics” and illustrated the difficulty of securing consensus in Canada’s diverse federation

National Referendum

Or known as a ballot measure is a direct vote by the electorate (rather than their representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue

Constitutional Amending Formula

Introduced in the Constitution Act, 1982- highlights five different procedures for amending the Constitution:

1. General Procedure (7/50 Rule)

2. Unanimity Procedure

3. Unilateral Federal or Provincial Amendments

4. Bilateral Amendments

5. Federal-only Amendments

Subsidiarity

A principle of governance stating that decisions should be made at the most local level capable of addressing the issue effectively

Subsidiarity in Canada

Canada’s subsidiarity argues for

• local or provincial responsibility when possible,

• federal involvement only when necessary for efficiency or national unity

Promotes both local autonomy and cooperative federalism

Contract Theory of Federalism

Conceptualizes federalism as a social contract between citizens and levels of government. Supports a more bottom-up, democratic view of federalism compared to elite-driven interpretations

• examples. defense or trade
  

Implications of Contract Theory of Federalism

• Federalism exists to serve the people,

• Power flows from the ground up,

• Authority is based on consent, not hierarchy.

Compact Theory of Federalism

Sees federalism as a pact between constituent units, like provinces or states themselves

• example. Often used by Quebec nationalists to assert provincial sovereignty and resist centralization

Implications of Compact Theory of Federalism

• Equal partnership among provinces,

• Mutual agreement as the basis of federation,

• Justification for provincial vetoes and asymmetrical arrangements

Intra-state Federalism

The representation of provinces within federal institutions such as

• The Senate (intended to represent regional interests),

• The Cabinet (ensures geographic balance),

• First Ministers’ meetings

Intra-state Federalism in Canada

One way to ensure that subnational voices are not only separate from but also embedded within central institutions

• In Canada, however, its effectiveness is limited by the unelected Senate and centralized party control​.

Unitary State

A political system in which all power resides with the central government. Subnational unites are created by and accountable to the central authority, can be reorganized or abolished at will

• examples. United Kingdom (despite devolution), France

Unitary State in Canada

Canada differs from the concept of a unitary state as it has constitutionally entrenched provinces with sovereign powers, making it a federation, not a unitary state

Confederal Arrangement

A confederation is a looser union of sovereign states that delegate limited powers to a common authority

• Canada is often mistaken as a confederation, but it functions as a federal state

Key Components in Confederal Arrangement

• States retain ultimate sovereignty,

• Central government is weak and depends on the consent of members,

• Decisions often require unanimity.

Symmetrical federalism

Occurs when all constituent units (example. provinces) have the same powers and status under the Constitution

Asymmetrical federalism

Provides different powers to different units (example. Quebec’s unique cultural and linguistic provision)

• Canada is asymmetrical in practice as some provinces have distinct agreements with Ottawa in areas such as immigration, language, and culture

Centralization

Refers to the concentration of political authority and decision-making in the federal (central) government

Centralization in Canada

• Centralization was a founding goal

• Provincial power expanded through judicial rulings and policy needs (e.g., health, education),

• Tension between centralized fiscal power (Ottawa controls more money) and decentralized service delivery (provinces handle key social programs)​​.

Weak-Form Judicial Review

Courts have the authority to review and strike down legislation, but the legislature retains the final say. This system reflects a balance between judicial oversight and democratic accountability, creating space for dialogue between courts and legislatures​.

Weak-Form Judicial Review in Canada

In Canada, this model is embedded in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, where courts interpret rights but Parliament can respond through amendments or the notwithstanding clause (Section 33).

Strong-Form Judicial Review

Courts have the final authority to determine the constitutionality of laws, and their decisions are binding on the legislature. Critics argue it risks judicial overreach, while supporters emphasize its role in protecting rights from majoritarian abuses.

Strong-Form Judicial Review in the United States

In the United States, gives courts supremacy over elected bodies. Laws struck down cannot be reinstated by ordinary legislative action.

Judicial Activism

Occurs when courts are perceived to go beyond interpreting law to effectively make policy through their rulings. This often involves bold decisions that reshape laws or institutions, especially in areas of social justice, minority rights, or federalism.

Judicial Activism in Canada

In Canada, decisions expanding equality rights or Indigenous claims under the Charter have been labeled activist by critics, though supporters argue they correct legislative inaction or uphold constitutional principles​​.

Nowithstanding Clauses

Section 33 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms allows federal or provincial governments to override certain Charter rights (sections 2 and 7–15) for up to five years. It reflects Canada’s attempt to reconcile judicial review with parliamentary sovereignty.

• Notably used in Quebec’s override of language rights ruling

Dialogue Thesis

Argues that courts and legislatures engage in ongoing conversation about rights and constitutional values. Rather than seeing judicial rulings as the final word, this theory sees judicial decisions as invitations for legislatures to revise, amend, or respond democratically

• Supports Canada’s weak-form review of legal and political institutions sharing responsibility

Riding

An electoral district or constituency is a geographically defined area represented by an elected official, typically a Member of Parliament (MP)

Ridings in Canada

Canada is divided into 338 federal ridings. Each riding elects one MP in federal elections using the Single-Member Plurality system. The boundaries are reviewed periodically to ensure representation by population​.

Gallagher Index

Mathematical measure of disproportionality between the percentage of votes a party receives and the percentage of seats it obtains

• A score of 0 = perfect proportionality

• Higher scores = unfair outcomes

Gallagher Index in Canada

Canada's first-past-the-post system tends to produce high Gallagher scores, reflecting its disproportionate results and tendency to reward larger parties disproportionately​.

Single-Member Plurality (SMP)/ First-past-the-post

Canada’s current voting system. In each riding, the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they get a majority. Advantages include simplicity and stable majorities.

Criticisms of SMPs

Wasted votes, regional distortions, and poor proportionality, leading to calls for reform (e.g., proportional representation or ranked ballots)​.

Brokerage Parties

Broad-based political parties that avoid ideological extremes and aim to represent a diverse set of interests, especially across regional, linguistic, and ethnic lines

Brokerage Parties in Canada

In Canada, the liberal and conservative parties are classic examples. They often use ambiguous policy positions and promote national unity. This model fits Canada’s regional diversity and electoral system, where appealing to the political center is key to winning elections​.

Function of Political Parties

1. Recruit and nominate candidates,

2. Aggregate interests from various social groups,

3. Form governments or opposition,

4. Structure legislative debates,

5. Mobilize voters, and Develop policy platforms.

Political Parties in Canada

In Canada, parties operate within strong parliamentary discipline, especially in majority governments​​. They are  critical in connecting citizens to government, fostering accountability, and ensuring political competition.

Separation of Powers

This principle divides government authority among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent concentration of power.

Separation of Powers- Presidential System

In presidential systems like the U.S., the branches are institutionally independent.

Separation of Powers- Parliamentary System

• In Canada’s Westminster system, there is no strict separation—executive and legislative powers are fused, with the Cabinet drawn from Parliament and accountable to it

• However, the judiciary remains independent, ensuring checks and balances through judicial review

Fusion of Powers

Refers to a system of governance in which the executive and legislative branches are interlinked and dependent on one another, rather than being separate. (fusion = executive + legislature)

• This is a key feature of a parliamentary system, where the executive is drawn from the legislature and must maintain its confidence to stay in power.

Principle of Collective Responsibility

Responsibilities are shared by members of the executive (differs from the presidential system) 

• Comparatively, the executive’s term ends when they lose confidence in the legislature 

Executive Dominance

• Refers to a concentration of authority within the executive 

• Executive branch holds a disproportionate amount of power relative to the legislature and judiciary 

  • Can manifest through control of the legislative agenda, influence in policymaking, limiting the legislative body’s power in challenging or overseeing the executive

Executive Dominance Concerns- Prime Ministerial Government

Prime ministerial government (governing from the centre/executive dominance) where power becomes concentrated in the executive, potentially sidelining parliament and even the cabinet 

Presidential System

A form of government in which the executive branch exists separately from the legislature and is elected independently by the public

• The president serves as both head of state and head of government 

Key Components of a Presidential System

• President selection through popular selection 

• Fixed terms (limited term in office- current arrangement is 2 terms)

• Separation of powers 

• President appoints their own cabinet- who are not accountable to the legislature

  • However must cooperate with legislative branch as only they can pass legislation

• Checks and Balances- where both branches can limit each other’s powers

Challenges to a Presidential System

Potential for political deadlock (example. US government shutdowns) and difficulty in governing when different parties control different branches 

Parliamentary System

A form of democratic governance where the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature. The executive must maintain the confidence of the legislature to remain in office.

Key Components of a Parliamentary System

• Prime minister and cabinet are members of the legislature 

• No direct election of the executive by the public- chosen within the legislature

  • Executive = crown + PM + cabinet 

• Fusion of powers- close interdependence between executive and legislative branches 

• Executive remains in power only with majority support of legislature 

• No fixed terms- determined by confidence votes or elections 

Challenges to a Parliamentary System

Challenges to this system include the concept of “prime ministerial government”- where power becomes concentrated in the executive, potentially sidelining parliament and even the cabinet

Class Consciousness

• Refers to an individual’s awareness of the social class to which they belong to

• It stems from understanding the class inequality and obvious class difference in canada (disparity between rich and poor)

Class Consciousness in Canada

Class consciousness is low in Canada- little class-based voting or party activity indicating how individuals do not strongly identity with class division in political terms

Marxian Political Economy (Karl Marx)

Class analysis that focuses on the division between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (those who must sell their labour)

• Emphasizes that class conflict and class struggle drive historical and political change

• “New middle class” recognizes the existence of fractions within classes rather than strict binary divisions

Neoclassical Economics

Prirotitizes the role of the free market in shaping economic outcomes through concepts like the law of supply and demand

• Emphasizes rational decision-making by individuals

• challenges class-based analyses by focusing on individual market behaviour

Staples Theory (Harold Innis)

Explains Canadian economic development as being historically shaped by the export of natural resources (staples)

• Theory highlights economic dependence and regional disparity, shaping political and economic dynamics

Staples theory in Canada

• Canada’s growth relied on successive waves of resource exports (example. fish, fur, timber, oil)

• the economy is regionally dependent on specific staples like:

  • Atlantic: fisheries (e.g., cod)

  • Quebec: hydroelectricity, agriculture

Gini Coefficient

A numerical measure of income inequality within a country or region- used to compare income distribution across nations over time

• Scale and interpretation (ranges from 0 to 1)

  • 0 = perfect equality (everyone earns the same)

  • 1 = perfect inequality (one person earns everything)

Self-Determination

Defined as “the possibility for a political community to decide its future” (Papillon)

Self-Determination for Indigenous Peoples

Refers to the act of reclaiming their status as peoples and shifting their relationship to the state. It represents both a political and liberation movement and a call for internal autonomy in political, economic, and cultural terms

• Context matters for how self-determination looks; this is a function of political opportunity structure 

UNDRIP

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples- a human rights instrument that reaffirms the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples

Key Components of UNDRIP

• Recognizes their right to self-determination

• Comprises 46 articles covering a range of issues

• Aims to affirm indigenous identity, cultural integrity, and territorial rights on the international stage 

Settler-Colonialism

Settler-colonialism is a specific form of colonialism where the colonizers come to stay, aiming to replace indigenous populations and structures

• Described as a “structure and not an event” (Tuck and Yang, 2012), meaning its impact is ongoing, not a historical moment

Settler-Colonialism Examples

Involves exploitation, domination, and subjugation of indigenous peoples by settler states such as Canada and U.S

• Settler states used education as a form of assimilation (residential schools)

The Calder Decision

A landmark Supreme Court of Canada ruling that recognizes Aboriginal rights to land that exist outside of colonial law

• Confirmed the aboriginal title existed as the time of the Royal Proclamation of 1763

• Sparked the development of comprehensive land claims and modern treaties in Canada 

Post-Calder Decision

Comprehensive land claims or modern treaties based on indigenous title

• (indigenous title: a claim to land on the basis of traditional occupancy and use rather than a formal treaty)

White Paper on Indian Affairs

• A Canadian government policy proposal aimed at eliminating the Indian Act and assimilating Indigenous peoples into mainstream society

• Faced strong opposition from Indigenous communities, leading to the rise of the Aboriginal rights movement

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

Established as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, the TRC’s mandate was the educate Canadians about the abuse and trauma caused by residential school systems

Completed in 2015, issued 94 calls to action aimed at promoting reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples

• modeled on post-conflict truth commission (example. Rwanda and Guatemala)

The Indian Act

A Canadian federal law that grants the government control over most aspects of First Nations life

Key Components of the Indian Act

• Gave jurisdiction over indigenous peoples to the federal government (Constitution Act 1867)

• Introduced band council governance, enfranchisement policies, and replaced hereditary leadership systems

• Continues to be a source of tension due to its colonial structure and top-down approach

Evolution of the Indian Act

• 1951 amendments address some overtly racist policies

• 1959 White Paper on Indian Affairs 

• Aboriginal rights movements gain momentum

• 1973 Calder decision

Red Power Movement

• A civil rights movement led by Indigenous activists in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s- called for “Indian control over indian lives”

Key Components of the Red Power Movement

• Advocated for tribal sovereignty, especially on traditional tribal lands 

• Helped lead to the 1975 Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, affirming indigenous control over education and governance 

Race

Social and political construction based on classification by visible physical attributes. Categories are often imposed by the state and used to uphold systems of power

Ethnicity

“Collectivity with a common ancestry, shared past, culture, and language, a sense of peoplehood or community”- primarily about shared identity and belonging

• Politics of ethnicity is largely about assertions made by a particular ethnic group on their behalf. 

Key Components of Race (according to the readings)

• Thompson: race is more closely linked to power dynamics- “race should be understood as a signifier of a complex set of power relations” 

• Ibid: “most important distinction between race and ethnicity is their relationship to power”

Racialization

• the process by which race is socially and politically constructed, where meanings attached to race shift based on context

• It rejects race as a static category- emphasizes how race is produced and reproduced through institutions, discourses, and policies

Racialization in Canada

In Canada, a visible minority is defined as “persons, other than aboriginal peoples who are non-caucasian in race or non-white in colour”- this language that is largely used in Canadian government, leads to concerns that it ignores the hierarchies that emerge in processes of racialization