cognitive psych exam 1

Structuralism

Overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience called sensations. Developed by Wundt (1879)

Analytic Introspection

Trained observers analyze their conscious experiences (sensations, images, affections) in response to stimuli. Goal: break down experiences into components. Problems: individual differences, hard to verify

Behaviorism

Eliminates the mind (introspection) as a topic of study. Focuses only on observable behavior (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs, Little Albert)

Ebbinghaus’s Contribution

Studied memory with nonsense syllables. Discovered the “savings curve”: memory retention decreases over time but can be relearned more easily

Classical Conditioning

US = stimulus naturally causing a response (altoid).
UR = natural response (accepting altoid).
CS = previously neutral stimulus (computer noise).
CR = learned response (expecting altoid after noise).

Little Albert

Showed fear generalization. Albert learned fear of white rat → generalized to rabbit. Showed behavior can be studied without reference to the mind

Operant Conditioning

Behavior shaped by rewards and punishments. Rewarded = more likely repeated; punished = less likely

Re-Emergence of Cognitive Psych (1960s)

Behaviorism dominated (objective, scientific). Cognitive psychology returned when behaviorism failed to explain complex processes (language, memory). Computers provided new metaphors.

PET

measures active brain areas using radioactive tracers (now rare)

fMRI

non-invasive, high spatial precision of brain activit

Neuropsychology

Studies brain-damaged patients to learn brain function

Electrophysiology

Measures electrical responses of the nervous system, often using animals

Nerve Net Theory

Golgi: signals travel in a continuous network like a highway.

Neuron Doctrine

Cajal: neurons are individual cells that transmit signals (not continuous).

Neuron Parts

• Dendrites: receive info

• Cell body (soma): integrates info

• Axon: sends signal

• Terminals: release neurotransmitters

• Myelin sheath: speeds transmission (saltatory conduction).

Action Potential Steps

• Resting potential (–70 mV).

• Depolarization (Na⁺ enters).

• Rising phase (+30 mV).

• Repolarization (K⁺ leaves).

• Hyperpolarization → back to rest.

Feature Detectors

Neurons that respond to specific cues (edges, orientation, motion). Plasticity: become specialized with experience.

Sea Slugs

Simple nervous system, large neurons. Used for learning/memory studies (Kandel).

Broca’s Aphasia

Non-fluent, effortful speech. Comprehension intact.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Fluent but nonsensical speech. Comprehension impaired.

Henry Molaison (H.M.)

Hippocampus removed → anterograde amnesia. Could not form new long-term memories, but short-term and procedural memory intact.

Reinforcement & Punishment

• Positive reinforcement: add pleasant (reward).

• Negative reinforcement: remove unpleasant (stop shock).

• Positive punishment: add unpleasant (scolding).

• Negative punishment: remove pleasant (take away privilege).

Neural Communication

• Synapse = gap between neurons

• Neurotransmitters = chemical messengers

• Receptors = receive NTs on next neuron

Neural Representation

We experience the world through patterns of neural firing, not direct stimuli.

Neural Networks

Interconnected neurons (excitatory/inhibitory). Basis of perception and thought.

Structural vs Functional Connectivity

• Structural: physical wiring (axons/synapses).

• Functional: regions working together during tasks/rest.

Viewpoint Invariance

Recognizing an object from different angles.

Likelihood Principle

We perceive what is most likely to have caused sensory input (Helmholtz).

Gestalt Principles

• Good continuation (smooth path).

• Prägnanz/simplicity (simplest form).

• Similarity (group similar items).

• Others: proximity, closure, common fate.

Bottom-up

Taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it (What am I seeing?- eg. seeing an animal you’ve never seen before)

Top-down

Using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information (is that something I’ve seen before?- eg. recognizing a familiar face)

Prior Probability

What you believe before new info.

Likelihood

How well data supports an interpretation.

What stream

What (ventral → temporal lobe): object recognition. Damage = object discrimination problems.

Where stream

Where (dorsal → parietal lobe): spatial awareness. Damage = landmark discrimination issues.

Mirror Neurons

Fire during both doing and observing an action. Important for empathy and imitation.

Direct perception

Gibson): environment provides all info (bottom-up).

Constructive perception

• (Helmholtz): brain interprets using prior knowledge (top-down).

Inverse Projection Problem

One retinal image could come from many real objects → brain must interpret.

Bayesian Inference

Combines prior knowledge + likelihood to make perceptual decisions.

Selective Attention

Focus on one thing, ignore others.

Divided Attention

Pay attention to multiple things. With practice, some tasks become automatic.

Attentional Capture

Automatic shift in attention due to sudden stimulus (e.g., loud noise).

Broadbent’s Filter Model

Early selection. Unattended info blocked.

Treisman’s Attenuation Model

Unattended info weakened but not eliminated; important words may still get through.

Dichotic Listening Findings

• Notice gender/tone but not content.

• Cocktail party effect (own name detected).

• Gray & Wedderburn: combined info across ears.

• MacKay: unattended words bias meaning.

Stroop Effect

Word meaning interferes with color naming.

Scene Schema

Knowledge of typical scenes guides attention.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious, low-resource processing (typing, driving).

Change Detection

Detection = noticing differences.

Change Blindness

Blindness = failure to notice large changes without attention.

Executive Functioning

High-level control (decision-making, inhibition).

Overt Attention

Overt: with eye movements.

Covert Attention

Covert: without eye movements.

Stimulus Salience

Bottom-up capture by noticeable features (color, movement).

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage (fractions of a second). Example: sparkler’s trail.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds 7 ± 2 items for 10–30 seconds.

Working Memory (WM)

STM plus manipulation of info for reasoning, problem solving.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Episodic: personal experiences.

• Semantic: facts/knowledge.

• Procedural: skills.

• Perceptual: recognizing familiar objects.

Sperling’s Experiment

Showed sensory memory is large but brief. Whole report ~37% accuracy; partial report with cue ~82%.

Phonological Loop

Stores verbal/auditory info. Evidence: phonological similarity, word length, articulatory suppression.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Stores/manipulates visual/spatial info. Evidence: mental rotation tasks.

Central Executive

Directs attention, coordinates WM systems, inhibits irrelevant info.

Episodic Buffer

Links WM and LTM, integrates info into episodes.

High vs Low Capacity WM

• High: better at ignoring distractors, efficient neural activity.

• Low: easily distracted, higher neural effort.