Life Sciences 11 January Midterms

Unicellular

one cell

Multicellular

more than one cell

Sexual reproduction

2 parents (half cells/sex cells) that produce offspring with genetic contributions from both.

Asexual reproduction

One parents and is a clone of the mother cell

Anabolism and an example

Building up of material from complex to simple (ex. building muscle)

Catabolism and an example

Breakeaking down material from simple to complex (ex. food breakdown)

Metabolism

The sum of all anabolism and catabolism together

Stimulus

something that causes a response

homeostasis and an example

the ability to maintain constant and stable conditions that is necessary for life (ex. goosebumps)

5 characteristics of life

1. One or more units

2. Reproduce

3. Grow and develop

4. Obtain and use energy

5. Respond to their environment and stimuli

lipid bilayer

seperation and protection provided by cell membrane/ cell wall (protects DNA)

Prokaryotic Cell

No nucleus, free floating DNA, smaller, has cell wall

Eukaryotic Cell

has nucleus, DNA within nucles, bigger, has organelles, not al hve cell walls

metamorphasis

to demonstrate growth and development

complete metamorphosis

egg —> larva —> pupa —> adult

imcomplete metamorphosis

small —> bigger —> biggest —> adult (grasshopper)

how is ATP made?

made through cellular respiration

cellular respiration

1. glycolysis (glucose converted to pyruvate) - oxygen is not needed, pyruvate transported to mitochondira

2. Kreb Cycle

3. Electro Transport Chain

What is ADP and how is created?

ATP releases energy when it loses a phosphate group, converting into ADP. Cells regenerate ADP back into ATP through processes like cellular respiration, providing energy for various biological functions.

ATP Is like what? What does it do?

A battery, it stores enerfy is transportable and reusable

Viruses characteristics

• are not cells (classified as non-living)

• can not reproduce without a host

• do not obtain energy they highjack cells and the cells use the enrgy to reproduce new viruses

• can not grow or develop withut a host

• the dont react to external stimuli but they can adapt to changes in their DNA or RNA

Virsus are made up of

• proteins

• RNA or DNA

• and sometimes lipids

• nucleic acids surrounded by a capsid

• outer membranous layer (envelope) made of lipid protein

• nucleic acid- encodes the genetic info to make virus copies

how are viruses classified

1. genetic material

2. capsid structure

capsid structures

• helical (rod shaped)

• polyhedral (geometric)

• complex (bacteriophages)

Capsids

Protein shells that enclose viral genetic material, providing protection and aiding in the delivery of the viral genome into host cells.

Nucleic Acid

Molecules that encode genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

envelope

A lipid-protein layer that surrounds some viruses, aiding in protection and entry into host cells.

Virulent

Refers to pathogens that are capable of causing disease, often due to their ability to evade the immune system.

pathogen

any organism that causes disease

prophage

A prophage is a bacteriophage genome that is integrated into the circular bacterial chromosome

Lytic Cycle (draw it out)

1. Attach

2. Inject

3. Replicate

4. Releases

Lysogenic Cycle (draw it out)

1. Attach

2. Inject

3. Prophage

trigger

4. Lysis (Splits)

5. Lysogenic or Lytic Cycle

what does host range mean

array of host cells virus can infect

how does it attach onto host

lock and key fit with virus and receptor on the surface of host cell

what do host ranges infect?

bacteria, plants, and animals (to reproduce)

Why do we classify

• organizing by relation

• represnet similarities and propsed realtionships

• provide diverse and complex

5 kingdoms

1. Monera

2. Protista

3. Fungi

4. Plantae

5. Animilia

7 Taxa Levels

1. Kingdoms

2. Phylum

3. Class

4. Order

5. Family

6. Genus

7. Species

Monera

Prokaryotic

Both auto and hetrero

unicellular

ex.) bacteria

Protista

Eukaryotic

Mostly unicellular

Both Auto and Heterotrophic

IMPORTANT: except for plant like (except algae)

Animal/plant/fungi like

ex.) amoeba

Fungi

Eukaryotic

Multicellular (except for yeast)

cell wall made of chitin

Heterotrophic

ex.) mushroom

Plantae

cell wall made of cellulose

multicellular

autrotrophic

ex.) plant lettuce

Animilia

no cell wall

multicellular

heterotrophic

Carl Linneus

Father of Classification

bionomial nomenclature

scientific naming system based on the genus species

dichotmous key

identifying and categroizing system

Obligate anaerobe

cant have oxygen present

obligate aerobe

needs oxygen present

facultative anaerobe

survives with or with/out oxygen

heterotrophic

saprophytic and parasitic

saprophytic

gets food from dead decaying matter enzymes to break down food

parasitic bacteria

gets food from living host, causes disease

autotrophic bacteria

relies on molecules

photoautrophic

sunlight through cellular respiration

chemoautotrophic

inorganic molecules to obtain energy (in thermal vents)

conjugation

cells gives offspring to one and then dies then into asxual fission

endospore

produces tough exterior to survuve different environments and regenerate when needed

survival conditions for bacteria

warm, dark, moist environmets

asexual fission

daughter cells are exact copies

anarobic respiration

uses lactic acid for fermentation

Glycolysis Steps (draw)

1. add energy

2. sugar clevage

3. removal of hydrogen ion to put another phosphate

4. ATP are produced

Who perfroms glycolysis? Where is it performed?

All euk and prok cells happens in cytoplasm cs all cells have one

fermentation

lactic acid produced by NADH denatures proteins, to recycle NAD+ to continue glycoysis

How is yogurt made?

milk has lactobiccilo in it which is the bacteria inside the milk. this bacteria undergoes glycolysis and glycolysis has the products of NADH, ATP, 2 Pyruvate. The NADH helps turn pyruvate into lactic acid (not enough oxygen) and this lactic acid is used from lactob bc it hurts the bacteria. So basically the bacteria ejetced lactic acid into the milk and this acid denatures the proteins which results in the soldification, taste, texture of yogurt.

lactic acid

NADH helps turn pyruvate into lactic acid during lactic acid fermentation, which happens when there’s not enough oxygen. In this process, glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, making energy and NADH.

bacterias impact on human health

1. defends us from “bad” bacteria

2. takes up space so bad bacteria cant establish

3. helps digest food properly

4. produces vitamin K

5. Protects gut lining(without inflamation and bacteria feeds off bowel)

6. keeps babies healthy: healthy in natural birth not c sections

How does bacteria impact our digestion and the digestive system

• breaks down nutrients

• fiber dense foods feed good bacteria allowing to help move waste

• produces 3 important chemicls: tryphtophan, tyrosene, and indole -3

tryptohphan

produces serotonin, melatonin (happy and sleep)

tyrosine

produces dopamine and epinephrine (motivation and adrenaline)

Indole -3

produces antiocidents that protet from oxygen and breakdowns free radicals reducing risk of cancer

How does bacteria impact (non human)

nitrogen cycle

nitrogen cycle

idk ask stella or sussye

antibiotics

blows up the lipid bilayer of organism (targets living things)

How do antibiotics function against bacteria

Antibiotics combat bacteria by targeting essential processes or structures unique to them.

Antibiotic resistant

Overusage of medication that over exposes bacteria allowing them to grow immune

Why has antibiotic resistance become an issue

Doctors Overprescribing bc they want the money, quantity / volume = money

Agriculture: feeds antibiotics to animals to make better —> we eat animals and then become resistant

Future non antibiotic treatments

Phage therapy

Vaccines

How does antibitoic resistance relate to natural selection (evolution)

Antibiotic resistance happens through natural selection. When antibiotics are used, most bacteria die, but some have mutations that make them resistant. These resistant bacteria survive and reproduce, passing on their resistance. Over time, the bacteria population becomes mostly resistant to the antibiotics. natural selection favors the bacteria that can survive antibiotics, leading to more resistant strains.