CH 7: Learning

learning

a lasting change caused by experience

associative learning

learning that involves forming associations between stimuli

non-associative learning

learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli

habituation

a form of non-associative learning whereby repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response

dishabituation

a form of non-associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation

sensitization

a form of non-associative learning whereby a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli

conditioning

the association of events in the environment

classical conditioning

a form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response

natural reflex

an automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that on its own elicits a response

unconditioned response (UR)

a physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired

conditioned response (CR)

a physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it is acquired through experience and is usually the same as the unconditioned response

stimulus generalization

what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

what occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

higher order conditioning

what occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning

extinction

reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

spontaneous recovery

re-emergence of a conditioned response sometime after extinction has occurred

phobia

what occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning

systematic desensitization

a process used to condition extinction of phobias through gradual exposure to the feared object or situation

conditioned taste aversion

a form of classical conditioning whereby a previously neutral stimulus (often an odour or taste) elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired with illness (nausea)

operant/instrumental conditioning

a form of associative learning whereby behaviour is modified depending on its consequences

law of effect

a law that states that behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again

behaviour

the systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour

reinforcer

an experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

negative punishment

removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

punishment

an experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour

positive punishment

presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

primary reinforcer

a stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding

secondary reinforcer

a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer

primary punisher

a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism

secondary punisher

a stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher

continuous reinforcement

what occurs when behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs

intermittent/partial reinforcement

a schedule of reinforcement where the behaviour is followed by reinforcement only some of the time

fixed ratio schedule

a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after a specific number of responses

variable ratio schedule

a schedule of reinforcement that occurs when the number of responses required for reinforcement is unpredictable

fixed interval schedule

a schedule of reinforcement that occurs every time a specific time period has elapsed

variable interval schedule

a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after varying amounts of time

shaping

introducing new behaviour by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behaviour

behaviour modification

a systematic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning

learned helplessness

a situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts

observational learning/social learning

learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others, called models

modelling

what occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another

vicarious learning

learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so

mirror neruons

neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action

implicit learning

the acquisition of information without awareness

spatial navigation learning

learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space

latent learning

a form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive

insight learning

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

specific learning disorder

a disorder that interferes with the acquisition and use of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in the development of academic skills: oral language, reading, written language, and mathematics